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THE GENTLEMAN'S MAGAZINE
LIBRARY.
THE
Gentleman's Magazine
^ Library:
BEING
A CLASSIFIED COLLECTION OF THE CHIEF CONTENTS OF
THE GENTLEMAN'S MAGAZINE FROM 1731 TO 1868.
EDITED BY
GEORGE LAURENCE GOMME, F.S.A.
ARCHEOLOGY : PART II.
LONDON:
ELLIOT STOCK, 62, PATERNOSTER ROW, E.C,
1886
Now Reissued by
Singing Tree Press
1400 Book Tower, Detroit, Michigan 1968
Vua.i
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 67-23900
Manufactured in the United States of America
by Arno Press Inc., New York, N.Y. 10017
INTRODUCTION.
''T^HIS volume is a contimiadon of the preceding one, and coa-
-^ dudes our reprint of all the archaeological papers on British
and Anglo-Saxon subjects contributed to the Geniltmat^s Magatine,
The field of archaeological inquiry in the previous volume had
extended from the earliest times of pre-historic ardueology to the
barrow-buQding period of the British tribes, and it opened up con-
siderable scope for inquiiy into the earliest settlements in this island.
But one important group of arcbseolc^cal remains was reserved for
the present volume — Stones and Stone Circles, which forms the open-
ing section of the following pages. It is not inadvisable that just now
we should take stock of what has already been recorded of these
remarkable monuments of antiquity, because, under the guidance of
Mr. Lukis, the Society of Antiquaries has wisely devoted some of its
funds to an investigation of these monuments of early Britain. One
volume of Mr. Lukis's work, dealing with Cornwall, has been issued,
and a further report was published in the Proceedings of the Society
of Antiquaries for 1885. This report includes two monuments
which are dealt with in the following pages — namely, Long M^ and
her Daughters, and Carl Lofts, Shap, Westmoreland ; and it will be
found, upon comparing the accounts given in the Gentleman's
Magati/ie in 1752 and 1834 (see pp. 71-75) with that by Mr. Lukis
vi Introduction.
in 1884, that alterations have been made in the position of some
of the stones. These records of decay or destruction are valuable
adjuncts to any inquiry into the uses to which stones and stone
circles were originally put ; and the time has surely arrived when the
archaeologists of England should produce authoritative memoirs on
this important subject It is distressing to think how much destruc-
tion has taken place in the past; but for such information given on
PP- '7» 73» ^7* 9*> 94i 'o** ^^6, 115, we must be supremely thank-
ful, while the interesting passage on p. 89, pointing out that in early
days our ancient monuments were not placed in the unscrupulous
hands of private owners, teaches us how in some respects we- are not
so much advanced in culture as the men of old.
The papers on Stonehenge and Avebury (pp. 75-101) record
various changes in the condition of these monuments; and the
paper on pp. 76-82 treads upon the less secure ground of theory,
giving a useful summary of the various ideas which have been pro-
mulgated from time to time as to the original use of Stonehenge.
It was Aubrey who, in the seventeenth century, first started the
idea that Stonehenge was a temple, and that the fallen stone in
the western portion was an altar upon which the Druids sacrificed
their victims. Erroneous ideas, when once they have been popu-
larized, are the hardest to abolish. Great authorities have pro-
nounced over and over again that this theory is altogether wrong
and absvrd, and yet, when I visited Stonehenge this last Easter, I
heard the old familiar story repeated as if nothing had ever been
written to disprove the wild assumptions of Aubrey and Stukeley.
It is not suggested that the writers in the old Gentleman's Magazine
are free from the prejudices of the "old antiquarianism ;" because
we see " Druid Altar," " Temple," and other similarly unscientific
terms used for the titles of their papers, but mixed up with these
theories are important records of the existing state of these monu-
Introduction. vii
ments at a time when archaeological surveys were not dreamt of.
On p. 79 it is asserted, on the authority of Britton, that Roman coins
were found under some of the larger stones at Stonehenge — a fact
which will require substantial proof before it can be accepted, but which,
if proved, would go a great way towards settling the long disputed
question as to the date of this monument But it is necessary to find
out where the statement was first made and by whom. Besides these
side-notes, there are some papers of substantive value which may fairly
be considered distinct contributions to science. We may mention
particularly the important communications on "Ancient Stone Chairs
and Stones of Inauguration" (pp. 27-43), and "Holed Stones"
(pp. 43-58), two subjects of very considerable interest Great stones
have very peculiar significance in the early history of some races ;
and among those who have inhabited Britain, the early Celts and the
Scandinavians stand out conspicuously as stone-building people. It
has often been suggested that our great stone monuments are not neces-
sarily now in the state originally designed by those who set them up,
destroyed or altered only by the hand of time or wilful destruction.
If the early Celts first designed, Scandinavians very likely afterwards
utilized many of them, and in so doing altered them to their own
purposes. Forbes Leslie, in his Early Races of Scotland^ points out
some facts connected with this subject, and draws attention to some
evidence as to the use of stones among primitive people. He says
that the "God of each Khond village is represented by three stones "
(iL 497). In Biddulph's Tribes of tJie Hindoo Koosh it is noted that
" in every village in which Shins are in the majority there is a large
stone, which is still more or less the object of reverence ; every
village has its own stone, but an oath taken, or an engagement made
over it, is often held more binding than when the Koran is used. In
several villages goats are still annually sacrificed beside the stone,
which is sprinkled with blood" (p 114). And again, in a passage
viii Introduction,
from the Indian Antiquary (ii. 66), relating to the Kulwadi tribe of
the Hassan district, it is said '' when a village was first established a
stone called ' Ram Kallu ' is set up. To this stone the Patel once
a year makes an offering." Instances like these could be multiplied
extensively from all parts of the world, and they serve to explain how
important it is for the proper elucidation of our own pre-historic
history to gather up all the information possible about our great stone
monuments. That stone-circles are sepulchral in origin is, I think,
undoubted,, and Mr. Lukis has put the matter in its most significant
form by the explanation of his " iron-railing theory f that single stones
are political centre points in tribal history is equally, to my mind, un-
doubted, and equally capable of scientific proof.
The section entitled '* Miscellaneous Antiquities : British Period,"
includes some interesting articles on subjects which have not come
under any of the preceding sections, and one or two which were
accidentally omitted
To pass from British to Anglo-Saxon antiquities is, of course, not
in strict chronological order, but the advisability of doing this is
considerable. In the first place, it enables the present volume to
finish one complete section of archaeology, and it will also enable
the next volume, on Roman Remains in Britain, to be equally com-
plete. In the second place, Roman remains occupy very distinctly
a chronological period of their own. They are not British in the
sense that Celtic or Anglo-Saxon are British, because they repre-
sent only a temporary occupation of this island — an occupation
having great permanent effects, we well know, but still temporary in
its immediate effect Therefore the jump from British to Saxon
antiquities seems to be justified on more grounds than one.
It IS important to know the places of Anglo-Saxon settlement and con-
quest, because the topography and condition of these remains greatly
jiid the historian in his labours. All who know Mr. Green's Making of
Introduction. ix
En^nd^ understand fully how graphic he has made his pages by a
reference to the records of archaeolc^ ; and if we possessed complete
and careful accounts of Anglo-Saxon antiquities, the labours of the
historian would be capable of much amplification. It is only of late
years that history has paid attention to the earliest English period
Hume thought it was scarcely worth attention, and it was reserved
for Palgrave, Kemble, Freeman, and Green to show that it is the
very foundation of all later history. It is not too much to add that
if these great authorities had had before them a complete archaeo-
logical survey of this period, their own researches would have been
more thorough and more correct The various writers in the
GentUmatCs Magazine have preserved facts which but for them would
have been lost, and in this light their labours, fragmentary though
they necessarily are, must be considered.
The first section is devoted to ''E^ly Anglo-Saxon Remains*
This for the most part means pagan Saxondom. It gives us infor-
mation of the doings of our ancestors when they first set foot in these
islands— doings which led them invariably to the grave, and left their
last resting-place as the only memorial of their busy and devastating
lives. It is only when Christianity has stepped into the field that any
signs are given of a life outside the battlefield and the camp. Such
a contrast is an important point to have gained in estimating the
value of the present volume of collections ; and this, I venture to
think, will be found to be the lesson which it teaches.
In the section on *' Anglo-Saxon Local Antiquities " much curious
information of a valuable kind is collected, leading directly to that
historical study which b the raison tTUre of archaeological research.
"Anglo-Saxon Ornaments" follows, and gives us some little insight into
the culture of the earliest period of the English race. "Late Anglo-
Saxon Antiquities " deals with a few Christian remains of the period,
and lands the inquirer at the very threshold of the Norman Conquest.
Introduction.
The volume closes with an iDteresting section on '' Scandinavian
Antiquities," telling us, in one local instance, how important the
result of this inroad was in settling the races of Britain. Scandi-
navians and English were first-cousins in blood, but they fought on
English soil some of the sturdiest battles which either race had
experienced. Their influence is now being more recognised by
inquirers, and Mr. Thompson's paper will be estimated by all readers
as not unworthy to rank among the various publications on the subject
An interesting subject appertaining to the monumental remains
dealt with in this volume is the legends sometimes told about them,
and the popular names given to them. Of the former, that given on
p. 25 of the wood called Snake Hill is a near parallel to the well-known
story derived from Eastern sources of the devoted greyhound Gelcrt ;
and it is worth while suggesting whether, though our English peasants
have lost the great stock of folk-tales which belong to other branches
of the Aryan race, they may not still possess some of them under the
guise of legends attached to some special localities or special objects,
such as these great monuments. This is to some extent borne out
by the curious names oftentimes attached to them, and which may
perhaps be indicative of the story once told, but now, alas ! lost.
Thus, of popular names, we have in the^following pages such curious
instances as Alderman's Ground, Bridestonc, Cannon Rocks, The
Two Captains, Carl Lofts, Cold Harbour, Culpepper's Dish, Devil's
Arrows, Devil's Dyke, Devil's Pulpit, Egmonds How, Frethevy-stone,
Giant's Load, Grey Mare and her Colts, Grimsditch, Guggleby stone,
Holy stone, Hulley's-Slack, Kitt's Coti house, Ladstones, Long Meg
and her Daughters, Lowfield, Matlow Hill, Men-an-tol, Men-skryfa,
Ned and Grace's Bed,^Nine Maidens, Old|Man at Mow, Pancake,
Pots-and-Pans, Ringstone Edge, Robin Hood's Bed, Rise Hill
Wood, Sazzen Stone, Shipley Hill, Skellow, Sleepy Low, Soldiers'
Ring, Wolf Fold.
Introduction. xi
It is not surprising to find that the names attached to the contri-
butions making up this volume are for the most part those of men
not yet forgotten. Old friends appear also, such as T. Row, and
Paul Gemsege for Dr. Samuel Pegge, George Hall, J. G. Nicholls.
The new names which appear include Mr. Joseph Hunter, Assistant-
Keeper of Public Records, who di^ in 1861; Mr. Edward T.
Stevens, the author of Flint Chips^ and one of the founders of the
Blackmore Museum at Salisbury; Dr. John Thumham, the cele-
brated craniologist ; Mr. T. Crofton Croker ; Mr. E. Donovan, the
naturalist, who died in 1837 ; T. D. Fosbroke, the well-known
antiquary, who died in 1842 ; Mr. James Thomson, the Leicester
antiquary; Mark Antony Lower, the Sussex antiquary; Dr. G. C.
Gorham, who died in 1857 ; J. K. Walker, M D. ; Joseph Chattaway ;
J. K. Moor ; Edw. Rudge ; A. C. Kirkmann ; Samuel Hasell ;
George Yates; A. J. Dunkin; James Wyatt, F.G.S. ; E. Pretty;
T. H. Hunt ; Dr. J. W. W. Smart ; J. H. Hanshall ; O. Cockayne ;
Dr. George Dodds ; W. S. Hesleden ; and then such well-known
authorities as T. G. Bonney, J. J. A. Boase, J. T. Blight, R. R. Brash,
Hodder Westropp : John Brent, F.S.A. ; and C. Roach Smith.
G. U GOMME.
Castelnau, Barnes,
luft^^ 1886.
CONTENTS.
introddction ....
Stonbs akd Stonb Cikcles :
Suae Circka uid Hesalithic Remmiiu '
On Ancknt Stone Chain and Stouea of IntngnnlioD
On Holed Stonet ....
Si. Cleer, Cornwall ....
Britnh Work* neai Bittafbrd Bridtte, Devon
Account irf a Stone Circle at GoTwell, Doreel
Temple at Wlnleibome Abbey-
DcKriptioD of Kit'i Cot; Houe
An Accoont of the Ranaini at Siantoo'Dtew, in Somertetshire
Long M<x uxl bei Dangfaten -
Cari Loftt at Sbap, Wcnmoieland
Slonebo^ ....
PreKnt Slate of Stonehenfe [1819]
PRient State of Abujy, Wnti [1831]
Stonehenge and Abujy
Avebiu; and Silbnry Mill
Brandritb Craggi ....
The Derii't Arrows near BarcowbrJdge -
Remaint in Voiksbire
Some OhaeivBtioni on Certain lapposed Dniidical Remaini in the
Connljp of York . . . -
Sepnlcbral KUar at Stowfoid, Deronihire
Dmid Altar neu Bala
Britiih Sepnlchial Pillin at LlandwakCi Carmarthenihire; and Slowfbrd,
XIV
Contents.
Stones and Stonb Circles — (c<mtinuid)i
Cromlech at Lkngaltock Park
The Mto SkryUst Stone
The Sculptured Stone at Migvie
Figure and Description of an Irish Cromlech
Irish Cromlech
Remains of an Ancient Temple in Ireland
Remains near Lough Gur, Co. Limerick •
Druid Altar in Guernsey
Miscellaneous Antiquities: British Period:
On the Clothing of the Ancient Britons -
Ancient British Shield
Bronze Weapons
Ancient British Torques
Ancient British Collar found in Lancashire
Antiquities discoTered near Bridgewater
Antique Ornaments •
Antiquities in Belfast
Celtic Remains in Dublin
British Urn found at Storrington, Sussex -
Ancient Metallic Vessel found in the River Severn
Ancient Cooking Utensil
Druid's Hook
Curious Particulars concerning Wild Cats in Britain
Antiquities near Lichfield
Unknown British Trackway discovered -
British Antiquities in Kent
On the Site of the Ancient Ictis
Description of a Barrow lately opened at Oddington
Antiquities in Dorsetshire
Notes on the Remains of Early British Tin- Works
Early Anglo-Saxon Remains:
Saxon Antiquities at Kempston, Beds
Great Wilbraham, Cambridgeshire
Carlisle . . . •
Discovery of Saxon Graves at Winster, Derbyshire
Antiquarian Discovery at Ebrington, Gloucestershire
Skeletons found near Basingstoke
Isle of Wight
PACK
"4
"4
"5
Ii6
"7
"7
"7
128
131
«37
138
139
140
141
141
142
143
«43
143
144
145
146
147
148
151
nS
158
160
164
I7«
173
174
175
176
177
177
Contents. xv
PACK
Early Anglo-Saxon Y:BXLKUk%— {continued)
Anglo-Saxon Relics, Kent
Antiquities found near the Old Tilt-yard, Greenwich
Another Anglo-Saxon Cemetery in East Kent
Horton Kirby
Faversham
Stowting -
Burford, Oxfordshire
Sepulchral Remains in Pagan Rutland
Chichester -
Saxon Burial- Place near Salisbury
Discovery of Anglo-Saxon Remains near Scarborough
Supposed Anglo-Saxon Remains from Kertch
Anglo-Saxon Local Antiquities:
Coronation Stone at Kingston-on-Thames
Who were the Anglo-Saxon Kings crowned at Kingston ?
OfTa's Dyke, near St Briavel's, Co. Gloucester
The Devil's Dyke, Newmarket
Wareham : the Age of its Walk
King Alfred and the River Lea
Battle of Brunnan ....
An Attempt to discover the Locality of the Ancient Anglo-Saxon See
of Sidnacester
The Place of St. Oswald's Death
Anglo-Saxon Ornaments, Etc.
Anglo-Saxon Fragment ....
Gold Ring ..----
The Ring of Alhstan, Bishop of Sherborne, found at Llysfaen, Carnarvon
shire ......
Ancient Weapon . . . . -
Anglo-Saxon Antiquities ....
Jewel representing St. Neot ... -
Ancient Bone Implement ....
Late Anglo-Saxon Antiquities:
Cross cut in the Chalk ....
Saxon Arch at Leicester ....
Buckingham Castle . - - - -
Pavement at Hereford ....
Churches in Domesday Survey - - - -
178
iSo
181
185
186
187
187
188
189
190
192
193
197
199
206
217
222
227
228
234
241
245
246
247
249
249
249
252
257
257
258
258
258
XVI
Contents.
Latb Anglo-Saxon Antiquitibs— <<Mi/ui«r</) :
On the Number of Anglo-Saxon Churches
Saxon Inacription in Leominster Chorcfa -
Ancient Tomb at Dewsbary, Yorkshire •
SnnHlial at Bishopston Church, Sussex •
On a Brass of King Ethelred the Elder in dw Church of
Aunster ■ • • • •
St GutUac's Cross ....
Scandinavian Antiquities:
On the Immigration of the Scandinavians into Leicestersbirt
Disooyery of None Remains in Orimey •
Discoveiy of Ancient Graves in Deemess, Orkney
Discovery of Andent Relics in Orkney -
Vitrified Forts of Scothmd and the Orkn^s
NOTBS ....
INDKX ....
Wimbome
a66
276
278
a79
289
y>3
y>3
30s
317
333
Stones and Stone Circles,
VOL. VI.
STO//BS AND STONE CIRCLES.
Stone Circles and Megalithic Remains,
[isee. Part II., pp. 307-318.]
THE antiquity of the human race and the condition of man
in the ages before written history aie among the most
interesting problems of the present time. Facts disclosed by
the careful scrutiny to which the earth's crust has been subjected
have gone far to overturn opinions formerly regarded as beyond
question, and a spirit of eager and earnest inquiry has taken the
place of almost contemptuous neglect Caves and gravel-beds,
peat-mosses and lakes, barrows uid burial-places, are undergoing
careful examination, and every fragment of information which can
be gathered from these or other sources, is carefully stored up.
Primaeval archteology now not only occupies a large space in the
transactions of scientific societies, but also has been made the subject
of entire works by several writers ; among the most distinguished of
whom are Lubbock, Lyell, and Wilson, in our own country j Desor,
Nilsson, Troyon, Vogt, Waitz, and Worsaae, abroad. Not the least
interesting remains of prehistoric times, although perhaps among the
latest in date, are the megalithic structures so frequent in many parts
of our own island. To these, and more especially to that class
which are commonly called stone circles, the present article will be
restricted Its object, however, is rather to examine some of the
theories which have already been advanced than to propound any
new one ; for, in the writer's opinion, there are not yet sufficient
data to allow of any satisfactory solution of the problenL Still it
may not be wholly useless to show wherein these dieories are either
erroneous or in need of further evidence.
It may be well to commence by explaining two or three terms
which are commonly used to denommate the different forms of mega-
lithic remains. The menhir is a block or post of stone ; the word
Stones and Stone Circles.
means long-stone. The name dolmen (table-stone), or cromlech, is
applied to a large slab supported on several upright blocks. The
latter term is perhaps more common in England ; on the Continent,
however, it is used to designate a stone circle, while the former is
restricted to these table-stones. In early works on antiquities, these
structures are generally designated Druidical altars, and imaginative
visitors have not been slow to discover the hollow in which the
victim was laid, the channel down which his blood flowed, and other
sacrificial adjuncts. The kistvaen is a box or cell formed by up-
right stones, and roofed by one or more slabs. Blocks which do not
rise high above the ground are frequently called peulvans; and a
stone circle may be defined as a ring of menhirs or peulvans. Logan
or rocking-stones, and rock basins, will not enter into this article ;
for the writer does not think that they are yet proved to be the
work of man.
There is a weird grandeur about these megalithic remains of
ancient days, which can hardly fail to impress the most prosaic
visitor. Grey with the lichen growth of centuries, they stand gene-
rally on some wild heath or commanding knoll — sermons in stones
on the transient nature of man's life. Though loving hands may
have laid the honoured corpse to rest under the dolmen's roof or the
menhir's shade — though religious zeal, fervent but misdirected,
may have reared the rude columns of the stone circle — all now are
gone, the mourners and the mourned, the worshippers and the
priests, their memory and their history an utter blank. The work
indeed remains, but, as in so many and more beautiful monuments
of less ancient days, the worker is forgotten.
Stone circles, which are perhaps the most interesting and the most
perplexing forms of these remains of antiquity, are especially abun-
dant in our own island It must not, however, be supposed that
they are at all uniform either in design or size. The simplest plan
is a ring or oval of unhewn* upright stones. Examples of these
may be found on Dartmoor, in Stennis (Orknejrs), and at several
places in western England and Wales. At Sunbrick Circles, in
Furness (Lancashire), we have two concentric circles. At " Long
Meg and her Daughters " (Cumberland), and at Rowldrich (Oxford-
shire), we find two stones placed in advance of an opening in the
ring, as if to form a kind of portal. The " Hurlers '' (Cornwall) are
a combination of avenues of menhirs and circles. At Botallek
(Cornwall) the plan appears to have been founded on a series of
interlacing circles of different sizes. Near Keswick (Cumberland)
* Unhewn^ but for the most part, in the writer's opinion, quarried, Thoagh
perhaps boulders may have occasionally been used which were found to be of a
suitable shape, yet generally their form appears too regular to be the result of
accidental fracture ; and though in most cases the lines of joints have been followed,
art appears to have been call^ in to aid nature.
Staite Circles and Megalithu Remains, 5
there is an oval, inside which is a sort of oblong cell, or '' chancel,*'
marked out by small stones ; and in the neighbourhood of Inverness
are at least three groups of double concentric circles, in the interior
of which has been either an avenue leading to a third circle or an
enclosure of some kind. The two most celebrated ruins in Great
Britain are those of Avebury and Stonehenge, which surpass all the
others in both the grandeur and the laboriousness of their plan.
The former has, indeed, suffered sadly from the greed of that
modern vandal, the British farmer, who has turned an honest penny
by using it for a stone-quarry. Descriptions, however, remain,
which were made when it was tolerably perfect ; and the works of
Dr. Stukeley, corrected by the more careful surveys of Sir R. C
Hoare, enable us to form a pretty accurate idea of what it was in the
days of its grandeur.
Within an irregularly circular earthwork, formed of an agger and
an internal ditch, was a ring of upright stones about 1300 feet in
diameter. This enclosed a pair of double concentric circles ; within
one of these was a central menhir, within the other there were two.
On the south-east and south-west of the agger were openings, from
which proceeded two sinuous avenues of upright stones ; these were
more than a mile long, and the latter was terminated by a double
circle of stones. Unfortunately a village now stands within the
agger; the last-named stone circle is obliterated, and only a few
blocks remain here and there, as scattered monuments of departed
grandeur. Stonehenge is very different from, and fortunately far
more perfect than, Avebury ; a piece of good luck due probably to
its lonely situation on the open plain. Its plan may be described as
a double circle surrounding a double oval ; the inner circle and the
inner oval are unhewn stones, like those in the other British circles,
but the outer circle and the outer oval are roughly hewn blocks.
This, however, Is not its only peculiarity. The stones of the outer
circle have been connected together by a series of impost blocks, so
that it formerly resembled a gigantic post-and-rail ring-fence. The
outer oval has probably consisted of six or seven triliths, each formed
of a single impost block supported by a pair of upright shafts : these
rise in height towards the central trilith, which is about 21^ feet
above the ground. On each of the uprights projecting tenons have
been wrought, which fit into mortises cut in the under-surface of
the impost blocks. In front of the largest trilith is a huge flat block,
commonly called the altar-stone The whole is enclosed by a slight'
earthen rampart, which is approached from the north-east by an avenue
faintly marked by earthen banks, and on the left-hand side of this is a
solitary menhir, about 16 feet high, which is now in a leaning position,
and bears the name of the Friar's Heel. Two other stones are just
inside the agger, nearly opposite to each other, bearing respectively
east-south-east and west-north-west from the centre.
Stones and Stone Circles.
Conjectures, as it may be supposed, have been rife about this
interesting, and, till lately, unique ruin,* some of which are sufficiently
amusing. Inigo Jones saw in it a temple of the Tuscan order
dedicated to the god Coelus ; Duke considered it an observatory or
astronomical temple. Some declared it to be a triumphal monument
of the ancient Britons ; others a burial-place of British kings. Some
made Boadicea the builder, others the Phoenicians, the later Britons,
the Saxons or the Danes. It has also been asserted to be a Druidical
temple, a theory sure to be popular, seeing that in England every-
thing of unknown origin is instinctively assigned to one of four —
Julius Caesar, King Arthur, the Druids, or the Devil In 1849
Mr. Herbert published a very learned but rather obscurely written
book, entitled " Cyclops Christianus," in which he attempted to prove
that Stonehenge was erected by the Britains after the departure of
the Romans, at a period when there was a revival of the old pagan
worship, and an establishment of an eclectic neodruidism, a pheno-
menon in some respects analogous to the institution of neoplatonism
at Alexandria. Mr. Fergusson, in a very ingenious article in the
Quarterly Revieiv^ vol. cviiL, while agreeing with Mr. Herbert about
the date, endeavours to show that its form points to a Buddhist
origin, and that it is a cenotaph or memorial temple erected to those
who died and were buried at Ambresbury.f The same view as
regards the date was maintained in 1865 by Mr. Earle, in a most
lucid lecture delivered at Bath ; he, however, considers it to have been
a temple dedicated to solar worship. Mr. Herbert's and Mr. Fer-
gusson's arguments are in many respects the same, except that the
former believes in the power of the Druids while the latter does not.
Mr. Fergusson's remarks upon the peculiarities and influence of
Buddhism, and the similarity between the megalithic structures of
Western Europe and India, are very valuable. We think, however,
that (as he is too fond of doing) he rather overstates his case, and
attempts to prove too much.
His argument may be concisely stated as follows. He asserts that
there is no mention whatever of stone circles in any of the Roman
accounts of Britain, and that the earliest native historians — as
Giraldus Cambrensis, Jeffrey of Monmouth, and others of about the
same date — ascribe the erection of Stonehenge to the post-Roman
era, while the traditions attached to the other stone circles and
cromlechs all point to the same epoch ; that the Britons, previous to
the Roman conquest, were incapable of executing such works of
art as these huge squared stones, with their mortises and tenons, or
Mr. W. G. Pal^ave ("Travels in Central Arabia," vol. i., p. 251) describes
«
a stone circle very similar to Stonehenge.
t We see that he has lately settled the date of Avebury {.Athenceum^ Dec 23,
1865). It is in commemoration of Arlhur\s twelfth great battle, and two of his
generals are interred within the inner circles ! This is almost as good as Dr.
Stukeley's assigning Silbury Hill to the year of Sarah's death.
Stone Circles and Megalithic Remains. 7
of raising such enormous masses ; that Silbury Hill, a large tumulus
near Avebury, actually stands upon the Roman road ; and that, at
any rate, these structures could not be Druidical, because the wor-
ship of the Druids was nemoral, and they were restricted to a small
part of Britain, while " these remains are generally confined to the
barren moors on the remote sea-coasts of Brittany and the Orkneys,
where the trees never grew or could grow. On the other hand,
though groves and trees were rife between Chartres and Rheims, or
in the ancient country of the Camutes, not one single Druidical
remain is to be found within its limits.'' From this, though he does
not explicitly say so, we conclude that he endorses Mr. Herbert's
theory, that the megalithic remains of Brittany were erected by
colonists from our shores who settled in Armorica.
The silence of historians is indeed remarkable, but negative evi-
dence of this kind is of little value, especially in classical authors ;
and popular tradition is of all guides one of the most fallacious.
Occasionally, indeed, it is right ; but the chances in any particular
instance are greatly in favour of its being wrong. The assertion
concerning the position of Silbury Hill appears to us to have no
ground, save in Mr. Fergusson's fertile fancy ; for it is flatly contra-
dicted by the Ordnance maps, and by Sir John Lubbock, who
together with Professor Tyndall, visited the spot expressly to test its
accuracy. The limited space to which Mr. Fergusson attempts to
confine the Druids, seems to us to find no support from Tacitus,
and to be contrary to the testimony of Caesar (R G. vl 13, 14),
and of Chrysostom (OraL xlix.). The former of these records a
very remarkable tradition ; namely, that the rites of the Gauls were
derived from Britain. Hence the religious colonisation of Armorica
from our shores, which is pointed at by other Breton traditions,
especially a very curious one concerning the secret of Carnac, is
thrown back to a pre-Roman epoch. His assertions concerning the
localities of the so-called Druidic remains and the inability of the
early Britons to raise megalithic structures appear rash and un-
founded ; but in order to show this, it will be necessary to consider
somewhat in detail the connection of the various forms of these
monuments.
The main points to be determined are, whether the stone circles,
cromlechs or dolmens, and menhirs, are to be referred to the same
period or not, and whether that is before or after the Roman invasion.
We find in Brittany menhirs, kistvaens, and dolmens in close conjunc-
tion ; as, for example, in the neighbourhood of Lokmariaker, Carnac,
and Plouharnel. Stone circles, though, in proportion to the abun-
dance of menhirs and dolmens, less frequent than in England, occur
in several parts of the country. Dolmens, kistvaens, and menhirs
are abundant, not only in almost the whole of the ancient province
of Brittany, but also in the department of Eure-et-Loir, and in the
8 Stones and Stone Circles.
very neighbourhood of Chartres — where there is also a stone circle
— and are further found in those of Mayenne, Maine, Charente-
Infi^rieure, Aube, Vivarais, C6te<i'0r, and Pyr^n^s-Orientales. In
our own country we have the avenues of Avebury, reminding us of
Camac, together with the stone circles within the agger ; the men-
hir of the Friar's Heel at Stonehenge ; a menhir called the Kingstone,
and a kistvaen close by the Rowldrich circle ; the menhir '* Long
Meg," and the circle called '* her Daughters " ; the avenue and circle
of Karlofts (Westmorland), and the Hurlers ; besides many other
instances. We, then, seem justified in considering these roegalithic
remains to be the work of the same race, though perhaps they
may extend over a considerable period of time, and not be exactly
synchronous in every country. It is also evident that this race, at
whatever period it may have existed, occupied a considerable portion
of Great Britain and France
But this is not all : dolmens, kistvaens, menhirs, and stone circles,
or some one or other of these forms, have been met with in
Germany, Russia, and Savoy. There is a stone circle near Tyre ;
there are megalithic remains near Cappadocia ; there are menhirs
and dolmens, some of them surrounded by stone circles, in the Land
of Moab ; and dolmens, stone circles, and enclosures, with avenues of
menhirs, in great abundance, in the province of Constantine (Algeria).
It seems, then, impossible to refer these remains — so close in their
resemblances, and yet so wide apart in their situations — to a brief
national revival, or to invading hordes after the decline of the Roman
Empire : rather, they seem to mark the gradual westward progress of
some race in periods anterior to the domination of Rome Nor is
this all. In those cases where skeletons have been found in dol-
mens, kistvaens, or chambered tumuli, the bodies seem usually to
have been interred in a crouching posture,* a mode of burial which
may be considered as proved to be one of the most ancient known ;
while the paste and patterns of the pottery, and the materials of the
weapons and ornaments found in or near them, all point to an age
anterior to that of the iron-wielding Roman. The structures them-
selves also exhibit some peculiarities which seem to show that they
are pre-Roman.
Most of the dolmens and menhirs in Brittany are of unhewn
stones ; but ia the neighbourhood of Lokmariaker are several which
bear unmistakable marks of the chisel. On the capstone of one
dolmen is a number of round holes, which are arranged in circles
about one in the centre ; on another are some rude incised carvings,
resembling those which have lately been discovered in Northum-
berland, and some of those on the walls of the chambered tumulus
* Those of Constantine are very interesting. The tumulus is surrounded by one
or more stone circles : on the top the dolmen is placed as a stel^, and the ^detons
(crouching) em interred in separate kists below the mound.
Stone Circles and Megalithic Remains. 9
at New Grange, in Ireland ; on a third is an axe-like figure, together
with a few curved lines ; and the roof of a fourth (Dol-ar-Mar-
chand) exhibits a symbol which many consider to be a celt, while
on the central upright stone are some rows of curved lines, rather
like a series of upright "pot-hooks.'' Still more, the walls of the
gallery at Gavr Innis are covered by intricate patterns of curves,
circles, and other devices.*
These examples seem to show a gradual progress in art ; but it
must be remarked that the patterns bear no resemblance to any post-
Roman ornamentation. Though in intricacy and elaboration they
vie with the devices on Runic crosses, they are entirely different in
design. The argument is further strengthened by the fact that
Lokmariaker was once a considerable Roman town, as is proved
by the remains which have been discovered there. Close to
it are the carvings just mentioned, and yet they do not exhibit the
faintest trace of Roman art — or, indeed, of any later system of
ornamentation with which we are acquainted. We seem, then,
justified in concluding that the place was selected for a Roman
station, as being already an important native town, and that these
megalithic remains mark the tombs, of its chiefs, who ruled before
the coming of " the proud invader.*' Mr. Fergusson mentions one
instance, in France, where the capstone, " a rude unhewn mass of
rock, is supported by four slender columns of what we should call
early English architecture. *' Hence he concludes that, "in the
remote comers of France, the old superstition still lingered, and the
old mode of burying the dead was still practised even as late as the
twelfth century." That some remains of the old superstition lingered,t
and even does still linger, there is no doubt ; but that this monument
is of the twelfth century we cannot allow. Mr. Fergusson gives no
reference, and past experience in other matters has made us unwilling
to trust his eyes \ but even admitting the date of the carving, we
cannot suppose it of the same age as the dolmen. These so-called
Druidic stones were incorporated into Christian sanctuaries, as at Le
Mans and Chartres ; and many a menhir has been " christened " by
* There are also several other dolmens and chambers near Lokmariaker in which
similar carvings have been found. The resemblance between these and some of
the carvings in Ireland, as at New Grange, Dowth, and Slieve na-Caillighe, is most
remarkable. In opening one of these Breton tumuli (Butte de Cesar), eleven
Roman coins, ranging from Tiberius to Trajan, were found in the surface soil.
Among the dry stones forming the bulk of tiie tumulus were beads in coloured
terra-cotta, and at a depth of 22 feet beads of jasper and agate, with bits of carbon
and unglazed pottery, were discovered. The sepulchral chamber contained more
than a hundred weapons of polished stone, jasper, tremolith, etc. — Proceedings
R. I. A., vol. viii. 451.
t Higgins (*• Celtic Druids,*' p. 213) states that the Lateran Council, A.D. 452,
forbade the worship of stones, " in ruinosis locis et syl vest ri bus." Although this
proves that the superstition was not extinct, the date of the decree seems also to
show that the custom was earlier than the Christian era.
lo Stones and Stone Circles.
being wrought into a cross. Hence nothing would be more probable
than that the original supports of the dolmen had been altered. —
from a motive of mischief, of superstition, or of religion.
Has, then, the objection that these stones are too massive to have
been raised by the ancient Gauls and Britons any great force ? If
indeed the popular notion, that our forefathers were a set of tattooed
savages, running half-wild in the woods, be correct, it is certainly a
difficulty ; but we fancy this will not find much fkvour at the present
day. The character of the undoubted remains of ancient Gaul and
Britain, and the stubborn resistance which was offered to the Roman
legions, afford little countenance to such an idea. If we have
succeeded in showing that the Breton megaliths are pre-Roman,
all difficulty with regard to Avebury and Stonehenge is removed.
Many of the blocks at Carnac are more than 20 feet in height, and
isolated menhirs often far exceed these. The grand menhir, close by
Dol-ar-Marchand, now lying broken and prostrate, has been about 64
feet long, and nearly 14 feet by 8 feet in greatest breadth and thickness.
The dolmen of Corcaneau, near Plouharnel, has a granite capstone
some 26 feet by 13 feet, and from 2 to 3 feet thick, supported on
upright stones which rise more than 5 feet above the soil. If, then,
these masses could be raised in Gaul, there is surely no difficulty
with any of those in our own country ; and the wide geographical
extent of these remains, their great number, as well as the progressive
and peculiar character of the art which they exhibit, forbid us to
assign the generality of them to so limited and disturbed a period as
that which intervened between the departure of the Romans and the
Saxon heptarchy.
Stonehenge is now generally admitted to be a building of two periods;
the upright and impost blocks of wrought sarsen stone belonging to
one, and the unhewn stones of metamorphosed rock to the other.
Mr. Fergusson regards the former as the original temple, and the
latter as the " danams " or memorial stones of later votaries. Surely
the converse is much more probable. The circle and oval of unhewn
stone denote the earlier sanctuary, which resembles those so common
in other parts of Great Britain ; the squared and chiselled blocks are
the subsequent erection of a more civilized age. The exact date of
this, we think, cannot as yet be positively fixed. There is certainly
some evidence which tends to show that it was posterior to the Roman
occupation ; if, however, this is not the case, the great sarsen stones,
like some of the Breton megaliths, cannot have been long prior to
it " Long Meg and her Daughters " offer, in many respects, an
interesting parallel to Stonehenge. The " Daughters " are an oval
of unhewn blocks of granite, green slate, porphyry, and other rocks
of the Lake District. " Long Meg '* is a menhir of the sandstone
of the neighbourhood (new red), and on the side of it an incised
circular ornament, similar to those in Northumberland, was noticed
Stone Circles and Megalithic Remains. 1 1
by Sir G. Wilkinson. This seems to mark it as the work of a later
age. However, the nation which set up the " Daughters " cannot
have been very barbarous ; for some of them are about 1 1 feet by
4 feet, and stand 7 feet out of the ground ; and even if (as may
be the case) they are boulders, they must have been collected from a
considerable distance, as erratic blocks are not common in the
district
These considerations — namely, the geographical extent, character,
and sculpture of megalithic remains, the mode of burials with which
they are associated, and the material of the weapons (polished stone
or bronze), the ornaments, and the pottery, found with them — seem to
justify us in concluding that, with the exception perhaps of the sarsen
stones of Stonehenge, they are the work of a nation which lived before
the so-called iron age, and consequently before the Roman invasion
of Gaul and Britain.
It remains to discuss briefly some of the theories concerning the
purpose and meaning of the stone circles. Mr. Fergusson considers
them to be sepulchral, or at any rate monuments of the dead. In
proof of this he cites many interesting facts to show that the influence
of Buddhism extended into the West, and that there is a singular
resemblance in plan and form between the megalithic remains of
Great Britain and India. While fully sensible of the value of his
remarks, we are inclined to doubt whether he has proved his point
There are, doubtless, in addition to the case which he brings
forward, dolmens in Malabar, the Deccan, and the Camatic, with
stone circles in the last two places ; and in Siberia there are similar
megalithic remains, which according to the Chinese historians date
from about the 7 th century afler Christ ; and have, therefore, at any
rate in some cases, been erected by the followers of Buddha. It
does not, however, follow that the Buddhists may not have adopted
and incorporated into their own ritual customs which were already
in existence ; just as Judaism retained some slight trace of the
Egyptian worship, and, in a still greater degree. Western Christianity
appropriated that which was harmless (and sometimes more) in
Paganism. Consequently, we cannot admit that the points of simi-
larity between the megalithic worship of the East and of the West
prove more than a community of origin.
Mr. Earle, in the lecture to which we have already referred, main-
tains stone circles to be temples, and to be connected, in all proba-
bility, with solar worship. In the case of Stonehenge, the arguments
upon which he mainly relics are the following : — i. An observer,
standing inside the temple with his back to the altar-stone, and looking
towards the Friar's Heel, will see it through the principal entrance,
and will find that on the morning of the 21st of June the sun rises
exactly over it 2. The shape of these inclosures and their Welsh
name, Chor, a word of mystic signification, meaning " round," may
12 Stones and Stone Circles.
be emblematical of the sun. 3. The coins of ancient Britain and
Gaul have been copied, though often very rudely, from the Greek
Philippus, a coin which bears on the obverse a laureated head, on the
reverse a two-horse chariot Now, though much of these devices is
often so badly executed that its origin would hardly be suspected, still
the horse is generally tolerably well preserved ; and while the greater
part of the chariot is lost, the wheel is retained ; this, too, is often
replaced by a double circle of dots, exactly resembling the ground
plan of a temple. On some coins a rayed sun, a crescent moon,
and star appear, which, with the horse, a symbol of the flight of
time, all point to a worship of the heavenly bodies. We know, as
a positive fact, that this is one of the earliest and most persistent
forms of paganism ; that it did prevail among the Phoenicians, where,
as has been already remarked, one stone circle at least is known ; and
that the moon was worshipped by the Druids. 4. He maintains
that the plain does hot derive its name of Salisbury from the town,
for that, until the sixteenth century, was always called Sorudunum, or
Sarum, which title it even now retains. Salisbury he considers to be
identical with Solesbury, and with Salisbury Crags, near Edinburgh
(which, by the way, is close to Arthur's Seat), and to be connected
with Sul, the British name for the sun.
These arguments appear to us to be of great weight It is indeed
true that stone circles are often found surrounding cairns and burial-
places ; as, for example, at Heathwaitc (in Furness), near Inverness,
m Scandinavia, in Algeria, in India, and in Siberia.* In most cases,
however, there are no signs of sepulture. The commanding posi-
tions selected for these circles, the presence of well-marked entrances,
the inner chapels or enclosures, seem to connect them more closely
with religious than with funeral purposes^ We cannot forget the
great antiquity of Baal or Sun worship, or the circular form of the
temple on the sanctuary of Mount Hermon. The menhirs also may
sometimes be "stelae'*; but as there are other purposes to which
"pillars of stone" are known to have been applied, we must not
overlook a possible connection with phallic worship, as emblems of
the generative principle. Distinct traces of this have been discovered
among the primaeval antiquities of Scandinavia, and the Lingam stones
of India are too well known to need more than a passing allusion.
The next few years will probably throw much light on this
obscure yet fascinating subject : at present, however, all the evidence
which we possess tends to prove that the majority of these megalithic
remains belong to an age anterior to that of the Roman occupation
of Gaul and Britain ; and that they were the work of a race who, in
all probability, were unacquainted with the use of iron, perhaps even
in some cases with that of bronze. Part of Stonehenge alone, we
* Here, according to the Chinese historian, the number of the stones denotes
how many men have been slain by the dead warrior.
Stone Circles and Megalitkic Remains, 13
think, must be assigned either to the end of the Bronze Age, or to
the sixth century after Christ. The evidence which we possess seems
on the whole rather to favour the later date. We, cannot, however,
consider it to be a monument, but a temple, standing on the open
downs among almost countless sepulchral mounds, like a cathedral in
its grave-yard Once, as at the Cameillou of Tr^gunc, the temple
was but a double ring of unhewn stones ; afterwards, a more highly
civilized people, though it left untouched the blocks painfully brought
from far by its ancestors, erected the vaster and more elaborate struc-
ture which now diverts the attention of visitors from the older fabric
T. G. BoNNEY, MA.
[ 1 866, Part IL, pp, 493-49S1
In the very interesting article on " Stone Circles and Megalithic
Remains," by Mr. Bonney, in your September number, there is a
slight passing reference to " the walls of the gallery at Gavr Innis,
covered by intricate patterns of curves, circles, and other devices."
A more detailed account of this, in some respects, most curious of
all Celtic monuments may not perhaps be unacceptable to your
readers ; and having specially visited the place during a tour round
Brittany, in the summer of 1865, the following extract from my
journal is at your service should you deem it worthy of a place.
I started early this morning for Locmariaker, situated at nearly the
extremity of a long, narrow peninsula. A little beyond Crach the
sea of Morbihan* opened to view, presenting, with its numerous
islands, a splendid panorama. Just before reaching Locmariaker, I
alighted to see a magnificent cromlech, in fine preservation, called
the " Man^ Lud," or Mound of Ashes, probably so named from some
human remains having been found therein. It is situated in an
enormous oblong tumulus, of which it occupies one end. The stones
forming the entrance gallery, neaily as wide as the chamber to which
it gives access, are very large. This has been long known; but
several others in the same tumulus have been recently opened, and
partially ruined by official riflers in search of spoil to enrich the
Museum at Vannes. The first thing, on arriving, I went to the port
to bargain for a boat to take me to " Gavr Inis " (Goat's Island), a
league distant, and finally agreed for four francs, after having been
asked sevea By eight o'dock I was sailing across the dreaded
Morbihan (which has a bad reputation for its difficult navigation,
caused by conflicting currents), the surface just rippled into wavelets "
by a gentle breeze, and glistening under the bright rays of a cloud-
less sun. A little quay, formed of irregular masses of rock, slippery
* Morbihan means the little sea, from "mor," water, and **blan" or "vian,"
little. So the old name of Brittany, "Armorica,** means "on the sea," as
similarly the " Morini," a Gaulish tribe in the Calais district, were " the sea-msn."
The word " mor " has the same signification in Sanscrit, and is to be found with
varying vocalization in almost every Indo-European tongue.
14 Stones and Stone Circles ,
with seaweed, gives access to the island. On its south side rises a
circular mound, composed of loose stones, some 150 feet diameter
at the base, and 25 feet high, having at present a depressed truncated
summit, which was probably once conic, and the mound of still
greater height A few persons were aware, many years since, that amid
the thorns and briars that filled the crater-like depression there was
an opening into a cave, which occasionally served as a place of con-
cealment ; and there was also a tradition that a gallery existed under
the mound, the correctness of which a gentleman of the name of
Cauzique, on purchasing the island, determined to test Descend-
ing into the cave through the opening above, he at once discovered
that it was a cromlech, partially filled with rubbish, which he had
cleared out. This being done, the walls were found to be of solid
blocks of stone on every side but the east, which proved to be the
beginning of a gallery which had also been filled in from end to end
up to the very roof, and on reaching its extremity the original
entrance was laid open. That it had been designedly blocked up
was self-evident, and may account for the existing crater, from which
the stones were most likely taken for the purpose. The question
when is not so easily answered; but it was probably done in
obedience to the Early Church, which launched more than one
anathema against the worship of stones.* The gallery, nearly 40 feet
long, and from 3^ to 4^ wide, being narrowest at the entrance, is not
more than 5 feet high ; so that persons above that height must stoop
as they proceed. Its sides are formed of upright stones, twelve to
the right hand, and eleven to the left, which support nine covering
ones ; and the pavement, also formed of large slabs of stone, has
four or five steps at unequal distances. The chamber, about 8 feet
square and nearly 6 high, is composed of eight stones, counting the
end ones of the gallery, and is covered in by a single stone, a similar
one forming the floor. All these enormous masses are of granite,
and of a kind not found in the island, exclusive of the seventh stone
on the right side, which is of quartz. But now comes the interesting
fact connected with this monument, and which distinguishes it from
all others. The whole of the stones, except the quartz one — the
sides, roofing, and floor of both chamber and gallery — are covered
with figures, some in relief and some incuse, thus combining the
distinctive features of both Mexican and Egyptian sculpture. The
figures appear to be incoherent and capricious ; but it does not follow
that they are so. Possibly we have before us the symbols of an
extinct language, of which the key is wanting, and may never be
found.
* Arnobius the elder, about the beginning of the fourth century, in his famous
work against the Pagans, mentions the worship of ** Informes Lapides," a practice
denounced by the council held at Tours in A.D. 567, and .^subsequently in the
proceedings of the council of Nantes, with especial reference to the Armoricans.
Stone Circles and Megalithic Remains. 15
The most remarkable stone of the whole group is on the left side
of the chamber, as, in addition to the sculptures, it has in the centre
three circular apertures, divided by vertical bands, forming two solid
handles, and, passing your arms through these openings, the lower
part of the stone is found to be hollowed, for what purpose no
adequate reason has been as yet assigned. It may be suggested that the
handles were employed for the fastening of human victims about to
be sacrificed ; but the space behind, which must have been a work of
extreme difficulty, would, on this supposition, appear useless. The
sculptures consist principally of curved and concentric lines, circles
interlacing each other, celt-like figures arranged in twos and threes,
and others in columns, somewhat resembling arrow-headed characters.
On one stone are three serpents or figures of a serpentine form ;
whilst on another is seen what appears to be an axe with its handle ;
and this is found on some other cromlechs. Gustave de Closmadeuc,
Membre de la Sod^t^ Polymathique du Morbihan, to whom I am
indebted for several of these particulars, has given it the distinctive
and appropriate name of " signe asciforme." The last slab, forming
the floor of the gallery, has on the side next the chamber a succes-
sion of chevrons, forming what may perhaps be intended for a border.
After inspecting the interior, for which, including a light, there is a
charge of twenty-five cents, I ascended to the summit of the mound,
commanding a most glorious view of the archipelago, which the
natives tell you has as many islands as there are days in the year.
On regaining the mainland I had time before returning to Auray
(to take the train for Vannes, en route for St. Gildas de Rhuis) to see,
a little to the south-west of Locmariaker, the magnificent cromlech,
called indifferently La Table de C^sar, and the Dol-ar-Marchant,
whose covering stone is 32 feet long by 16 feet broad, and
more than \\ feet thick. Near it is the largest of all known
menhirs, now prostrate and broken into four pieces, which
measure together about 65 feet It is known here, I find, as the
Men-ar-Groach, or the Sorcerer's Stone ; and how it could have been
placed in an upright position, its estimated weight being more than
two hundred tons, except by supernatural means, seems an inexpli-
cable mystery. The obelisk in firont of St Peter's at Rome, which
is only some 18 feet higher, and from its shape not nearly so
heavy, cost the celebrated Fontana almost a year to raise with the
assistance of the most powerful machinery ; while the erection of the
obelisk of Luxor, at Paris, by Le £as, was a work of immense labour
with all the appliances of modern times. The inclined plane, which
might have been sufficient as regards most of the menhirs, could
hardly have been adequate in this instance.
I will just remark, in conclusion, that after seeing the three crom-
lechs at Plouharnel, the one under St Michael's Mount at Carnac, the
Man^ Lud, near Locmariaker, that at Gavr Inis and others, it seems
1 6 Stones and Stone Circles.
to me highly probable that every cromlech, or at least every one with
a covered gallery leading to it, was originally the nucleus of a super-
incumbent mound, although this in many instances, from various
causes which might be easily enumerated, may have long since
disappeared. We can, on this supposition, account naturally for the
closed way, of which it would be otherwise extremely difficult to give
a satis&ctory explanation.
I am, etc John J. A. Boase.
[1868, Part L^pp. 308-319.]
Of the pre-historic remains still left to us, few have been the objects
of more speculation as to their origin and use than the circles of
standing stones. Many have been destroyed in succeeding ages — in
the course of the advancement of agriculture, and by other causes —
whilst those remaining owe their preservation chiefly to the fact of
occupying portions of land unfit for the plough. Thus most of them
stand beyond the scenes of the daily labour of man, silent testimo-
nies of the existence of a people who had trod this soil so long ago
that, even at the earliest period of which we have records, these
monuments were subjects of superstitious regard. The wild and
uncultivated scenes by which they are surrounded lend to them a
peculiarly weird and mysterious aspect. To every wayfarer, archaeo-
logist, painter, or poet they are objects of attraction. To a ruined
circle Keats compares his " bruised " Titans : —
** One here, one there,
Lay vast and edgeways, like a dismal cirque
Of Druid stones, upon a forlorn moor."
Nor is there any more impressive evidence of the mutability of
human aflairs than these rude, lichen-stained stones. They, them-
selves but the rdics of once perfect structures, have yet, even in
their ruined condition, outstood the downfall of cities, and have
remained whilst palaces and the finest works of art have become
mere refuse heaps, or have crumbled to dust.
Who were the builders of these structures, and for what purpose
were they designed, have long been the inquiries sought to be
answered by anxious students ; and though there are yet many diffi-
cult points to be explained, the researches made in recent years have
thrown considerable light on the subject Many of the numerous
theories and fancies which earlier writers had woven around these
monuments have been cleared away. Speculation, however, probably
did no harm ; and the attempted explanations by learned men of the
last century served, perhaps, but to pave the way for the more prac-
tical observers of the present day.
That many of these circles were reared previously to the arrival of
the Romans in this country is very generally admitted by pre-historic
antiquaries, as well as by those whose studies have not extended
Stone Circles and Megalithic Remains. ij
beyond authenticated periods of history. Some circles of a sepulchral
character were possibly constructed during the Roman occupation ;
and circular enclosures to barrows were formed in Anglo-Saxon times.
The different modes of interment, and the character of the relics dis-
covered within tumuli, would, of course, clearly indicate the period of
each. But as many circles have been denuded of their mounds, and
as the structures which may have existed within them have been long
siiice destroyed, the bare rings of upright pillars stand in several
instances as perplexing puzzles, rendering the intention of the primi-
tive architect and the purpose of his work, difficult to explain.
My object, however, is more to note the structures than the pur-
poses for which they were raised, though, sometimes, the careful
observation of the former seems clearly to interpret the latter. That
many of the simple circles of upright stones, popularly known as
'* Druidic Circles," were constructed as mere ring fences, is evident
from the more complete remains of other structures of this class,
and of which the circle near the Mulfra Cromlech in Cornwall,
described in Dr. Borlase's " Antiquities of Cornwall" as the Zennor
Circle, may be referred to as an example. This was formed by con-
tinuous walling between the uprights, a mode of building well known
to those who have examined British masonry. It has been noticed
by Sir Gardner Wilkinson in his remarks on this subject in the
"Journal of the British Archaeological Association. '' Uprights were
placed at tolerably regular intervals, then courses of smaller stones
blocked the intervening spaces (fig. iX ^^ if the ground plan had
first been marked out by the pillars, and completed in the way
described. I could refer to a great number of examples of this sort
of work. It was adopted in the hut circles, or cyttiau, in the hill
castles, and in tumulL In many instances, in either class of these
structures, which still exist in a comparatively good state of preserva-
tion, the removal of the smaller courses of masonry from between
the larger uprights would leave most excellent '* Druid Circles."
Sometimes the uprights touched each other, forming of themselves
a continuous circle, as shown by the barrow with kistvaen in the
parish of Sancreed, Cornwall (fig. 2). (See " Journal of the Royal
Institution of Cornwall," vol. i.) The diameter of this circle is
about 15 feet, the height of the stones averages 3 feet ; in the centre
is a perfect stone chamber or kistvaen, covered with a mound of
earth.
The next step in circular building consists of concentric rings of
stones, of which a small example exists on Kenidzhek Head, in the
parish of St. Just, Cornwall (fig 3). Here the diameter of the
barrow is 32 feet, the circles being about 2 feet apart, with the stones
almost close together, the greater number rising barely more than a
foot above the ground, though two or three are between 3 and 4 feet
in height In the centre are the remains of a kistvaen. A portion
vou VI. 2
i8 Stones and Stone Circles.
of this circle has been cut away by the erection of a stone
fence at the back of the targets of the St Just Rifle Corps.
Of this type the Oatland Circle, in the Isle of Man (fig. 4), affords
a large example. Its outer ring, of which but three or four stones
are left, was about 45 feet in diameter ; the inner one 15 feet,
with a kistvaen in its midst As on the external face of one of
the uprights of the inner circle there are rows of cup carvings
(see "Archxologia Cambrensis," toL xiiL, 3rd series), it may be
presumed that this was always exposed to view ;* that the mound
rose from the base of the inner circle to cover the interment;
whilst the outer circle formed merely a protecting fence, leaving a
clear passage between the two rings. The St Just barrow had both
circles covered.
In the three instances given above the interment was in the centre
of the barrow, but there are some cases in which even the principal
chamber was placed on one side, as at the barrow on Trewavas
Head, in Cornwall (see " Journal of the Royal Institution of Corn-
wall," vol. il), the outer circle of which measures about 35 feet
in diameter, the inner one, of low stones, 19 feet 6 inches, the stone
chamber being constructed within a foot of the inner circle on the
south-west side (fig. 5). Mr. Stuart, in " The Sculptured Stones of
Scotland,'' vol il, notices a similar arrangement occurring at Ballin-
dalloch, in Banffshire, where a cromlech still remains on the south
side, immediately within the circumference of the inner circle.
In some cases the circle itself was the part of the structure used
for interment, as shown by the ^remarkable circle of kistvaens on the
Mule Hill in the Isle of Man (fig. 6). Here may be seen the
remains of a number of stone chambers, following consecutively, or
at least with very little space left between them, and thus forming a
circular stone structure, over which, as a writer suggests, with much
plausibility, in the " Archseologia Cambrensis," was raised a covering
of earth ; the whole, when first constructed, presenting the appearance
of an annular embankment. The diameter of this circle is 55 feet.
This peculiar structure was first noticed by Mr. Halliwell in his
'' Roundabout Notes on the Isle of Man.'' A circle of sepulchral
chambers also existed underneath a great tumulus in Jersey (fig. 7),
and is described in Mr. Lukis's interesting paper on the construc-
tion of chambered barrows in the " Journal of the British Archaeo-
logical Association," and from which the annexed diagram is taken.
This " was a round barrow enclosing a series of six cists surrounding
a central arched or domed space, to which admission was gained by
means of a covered way or passage."
The preceding examples of circular walling all bear traces of
* These marks are not, however, decisive proof that sacfa was the arrangement,
as rock carvings have been found on the stones composing the buried chambers of
tumuli.
Stone Circles and Megalithic Remains. 19
having been mound-covered or as marking the limits, or forming the
bases, of tumulL We now come to consider those larger monuments
consisting of standing stones, which are more particularly known as
"Druid Circles/' and regarding which many theories have been
advanced They have been considered as Druid temples — temples
for sun worship -—places of meeting for chiefs and kings in council,
each man standing by his own pillar, and for various other ceremonial
observances. Dr. Borlase, in his description of stone circles in
Cornwall, commences with that at Boskednan, in Gulval, as a good
example of a simple circle of stones erect With the exception of
one sacred part in ruins, he appears to have considered this as a true
type of a proper circle, used as a place of worship. By a recent
examination of this monument I found that it is no other than the
remains of the enclosing base- circle of the larger portion of a " twin-
barrow." The smaller of the two, 36 feet in diameter, existing as a
cairn of small stones, though it has been much disturbed, on the
south side, as shown in iig. 8.*
The larger circle is nearly 70 feet in diameter, and consists, at
present, of eleven stones, three of which are prostrate ; those stand-
ing average from 4 feet to 6 feet in height On the north side,
within the larger circle, some portion of the mound may still be seen.
In Dr. Borlase's time, thirteen stones were standing, six prostrate
(fig. 9). About 270 yards north-west of this *' circle" are the remains
of another "twin-barrow" — the larger 35 feet in diameter, the
smaller 24 feet Both mounds consisted of cairns of stones ; which,
to some extent, still exist, though within my remembrance they have
been much mutilated At a b (fig. 10), are stones which seem to
have formed portions of a grave, or kistvaen. Twelve enclosing
stones remain of the larger circle, of which the tallest measures
6 feet 3 inches in height, and, were all the interior stones removed,
it would stand as a " Druidic circle," as good as its neighbour known
as the Boskednan Circle, and described by Dr. Borlase as a good
representative of the whole class of Druid circles. It will be seen
by the accompanying plans of both, that they were designed for the
same purpose, the difference between them being, that one is in a
worse state of dilapidation than the other. Remains of other barrows
similarly formed occur in the vicinity. There were two within a few
hundred yards of the "twin-barrow" last described, the greater
portions of which have recently been taken away to build a neigh-
bouring hedge, but of which I found enough to show how they were
built First there was an enclosing circle of stones, some placed
upright, some longitudinally (fig. 11), the intention being simply to
make an enclosing fence ; within this the grave was constructed, then
small stones heaped over the whole, the cairn extending, by about
* A person residing in the neighbourhood of Penzance informed me that some
labourersy about twenty years ago, found urns in this barrow.
2 — 2
20 Stones and Stone Circles.
6 feet; outside the built circle, as shown in the section (fig. 12). The
more perfect of the " twin-barrows " also had the cairn extending
beyond the circle.
Though the Boskednan Circles were clearly cairn-bases, there are
many circles whose diameters are so great that it cannot be conceived
that there ever existed within them mounds so vast as to occupy all
the enclosed space These larger circles should rather be regarded
as great enclosing outworks for the protection of a group of barrows,
or lesser circles, as was probably the case with Long Meg and her
Daughters in Cumberland, and possibly also with the RoUrich Stones
in Oxfordshire, though in the latter there are no internal remains.
The Boscawen-iin Circle, in Cornwall, 80 feet diameter (fig. 13),
still retains some vestige of an inner structure, in the form of an
inclining pillar, 9 feet in length. Smaller circles on this plan I have also
noticed at Aber in North Wales. (See '* Archaeologia Cambrensis,"
vol. xL, 3rd series.) In one of these (fig. 14) there were two circles,
with a pillar in the midst of the inner one. And the great circle of
Callernish, in Scotland, has also this central pillar. Whether these
remaining pillars be portions of cromlechs, or were simply the centres
of cairns, it is not always easy to determine. To mark the sites of
interment in smaller tumuli, single upright blocks of stones have
been found, as at the tumulus at Berriew, in Montgomeryshire
(fig. 15), where, underneath the covering-mound, were three stones,
several feet apart, unconnected with any structural arrangement (see
" Archaeologia Cambrensis,'' voL iiL, 3rd series). Much might have
depended on the quality of the deceased, or on other causes, as to
the nature of the place for the ashes or the body. The spot might
be indicated by a single stone, by the mere deposit of ashes on the
ground or on a flat stone, or by a kistvaen, or chamber of stone.
Different methods occur in the same tumulus. I have found in a
barrow an urn inclosed by stones placed carefully around it ; whilst
within a few feet the ashes of another body had been left on the bare
ground with a few flints only, and without protection of any kind
other than the mound raised over the whole.
A large circle (fig. 16), 27 yards in diameter, over Penmaenmawr,
in North Wales, which I visited in 1864, appears to have been con-
structed by several uprights connected by smaller masonry. Here
the interments were apparently made beside the pillars. Against the
inner side of the tallest pillar, a, on the eastern part, were the remains
of a small kistvaen; while against the pillar b, facing it on the
opposite side, was heaped a small carnedd. The whole is surrounded
by a ditch, within which, at c, is another small cairn. There are
other stone enclosures in the vicinity; one, at the distance of a
few hundred yards to the west, is of elliptical form. A circle at
Helmen-Tor, in Cornwall, also has the enclosing ditch. This ditch,
however, though serving as a sort of protection, owes its existence
Stone Circles and Megalithic Remains. 21
to the excavation of the earth for raising a vallum or a central
mound.
Next in order to single circles, with or without traces of internal
structures, may be classed groups of large circles, like the '^ Hurlers "
(fig. 17) near the Cheesewring in Cornwall Remains of four of these
circles still exist. Three were placed in a line running about north-north-
east by south-south-west The northernmost is 37 yards from the centre
one, from which to the southernmost the distance is 3 1 yards. 120 yards
north-west of these are two stones of the fourth circle. The spaces
between the uprights must have averaged about 10 feet when the
circles were complete. Their height is from 2 feet to 5 feet 6 inches.
The diameter of the north circle is 97 feet ; the centre one, 1 36 feet
There are no traces of internal works. As mere circles of standing
stones, these have, doubtless, thus appeared for centuries. The
name of " Hurlers " was given them in the popular belief that they
were once men engaged in the Cornish game of hurling. In Fuller's
" PisgahSight of Palestine," they are thus referred to : " But most
listen to it, as to a fable, and the Hurlers in Cornwall (men metamor-
phosed into stones, as tradition reports, for playing on the Lord's
Day) might fitly serve to build a bridge over this river."
Many of the Cornish circles, whatever may be the number of the
stones, are also known by the name of the *' Nine Maidens," from
the tradition that they were dancers turned into stone for dancing on
the Lord's Day. Why those with more or less than nine should be
thus designated, is unaccountable. Two or three circles happening
each to consist of nineteen stones have, from this fact, afforded to
some sufficient ground on which to raise theories relative to a
numerical signification.
One of the greatest puzzles in stone circles is Dr. Borlase's figure
of those which stood at Bottallack (fig. 18), and which represents a
group intersecting each other in the most curious manner. Possibly
these were not sepulchral, but the remains of hut circles with sur-
rounding enclosures. The skeletons} of many such structures still
existing might present a similar appearance tn the ground plan.
Of circles with long avenues attached, the great examples, of
course, would be those which once existed at Avebury, Wilts (fig. 19),
in which are combined most of the elements of construction found
in early circular tumuli. First, there is a great ditch, with a circle of
stones within it, exemplified on a smaller scale by the Penmaenmawr
and H el men-Tor circles described above. Then, as in numerous
instances already given, internal circles of stones, within which were
central structures, of which evidence still exists, two of the great
pillars near the farm-house, and which stood inside the northern
circle, were placed at an angle, and could not have formed part of
a circle.' Stone avenues led to the whole work from two directions.
This plan of circular works approached by avenues occurs also in
22 Stones and Stone Circles.
the passage-baiTOws, of which examples may be found in Mr. Lukis's
paper previously referred to ; and in the Caiiemish Circle (fig. 20)
the same principle of construction is seen.
Some of the Cornish caves, also, in ground plan would present
not dissimilar figures. Remove the roofing-stones and walls from
the Chapel Uny Cave (fig. 21), and there would be an avenue
leading to a circle. The New Grange Tumulus would also bear
some resemblance to this kind of work.
Therefore it may be submitted for consideration, whether the
great uncovered stone avenues — too extensive ever to have been
buried — did not owe their existence to the same motive which
caused the smaller stone passages leading to the interior of tumulL
Thus a comparison of the mode of structure of the lesser with the
greater monuments may serve to throw some light on the purposes
of both, and dispel or support some of the numerous theories which
have been brought forward Avebury has been considered as a
temple of the Druids ; a Dracontine temple ; a temple of the Cabiri
and of "the ever Blessed Trinity "; circles for councils and sacrifices;
temple of the Celtic Mercury — Teutates ; as a planetarium containing
temples of the sun and moon, and as a great burial-place. Though
Avebury may to some degree be compared with the smaller circular
buildings, Stonehenge stands alone. It was a circular structure of
vast pillars ; but its plan cannot well be brought in comparison with
other existing remains in this country or elsewhere.* But in one
respect this great national circle is like others in being in the midst
of a burial-field. Examinations that have been made of some of
the larger circles — sometimes called temples — have shown that
they were also at one time used for the burial of the dead. An
exploration of the Caiiemish Circle proved that it was once, if not
originally, used for this purpose. On the east side of the central
pillar was found a cist containing fragments of human bones, which
seemed to have been subjected to the action of fire. (See Proceedings,
Soc. Antiq. of Scotland, vol. iil)
Attention has recently been directed to certain ecclesiastical laws
of the Anglo-Saxons, forbidding the people to make a " frith-geard "
round a tree, stone, or fountain, in accordance with certain Pagan
rites or superstitions. These " frith-geards " are presumed to have
formed circular enclosures in the manner of the " Druid circles.'*
But whether our circles be pre-Celtic, Celtic, or Saxon, it seems
very clear that there runs throughout the whole class one pre-
dominating idea, which was simply to form, without regard to the
number or size of stones employed, an enclosure for the protection
of something within, either the remains of the dead, or some object
of religious veneration. A mere circle of pillars, ten, twelve, or
* Mr. Palgrave, however, in his " Travels in Central Arabia," describes a circle
resembling Stonehenge.
Stone Circles and Megalitkic Remains. 23
twenty feet apart, could not answer this purpose ; consequently it is
fair to conclude that the circles were not constructed as many of
them now appear ; but that these are skeletons only of fences or
boundaries of continuous circular masonry — or of pillars connected
by earthen mounds — and therefore a ruined circle cannot possibly
afford sufficient data for the formation of a plausible explanation of
its original use, and of the intention of its builders, from the present
accidental relative position of one stone to another.
J. T. Blight.
[1843, Part IL, pp. 361-365.]
[The first portion of this article, being speculative, is omitted.]
In Cumberland we may find examples of remains of Druidical
monuments, of a circular form. In the parish of Whitbeck several
such exist. I will mention one, near Gutterby, which at the present
day bears the name of kirk-stones. It is composed of thirty stones,
which form parts of two circles, an interior and exterior one, similar
in position to those of Stonehenge. In the parish of Milium, in the
same county, there did exist the remains of a Druidical temple, which
the country people called " sunken kirk," />., a church sunk into the
earth. It is nearly a circle of very large stones, pretty entire, only a
few fallen upon sloping ground in a swampy meadow. At the
entrance there are four large stones, two on each side, at the distance
of 6 feet Through these you enter into a circular area, 29 yards by
30. The entrance is nearly south-east. It seems probable that the
altar stood in the middle, as there are some stones still to be seen
there, though sunk deep in the earth. The situation and aspect of
the Druidical temple near Keswick is in every respect similar to this,
except the rectangular recess, formed by ten large stones, which is
peculiar to Keswick.
And I am informed that there are other remains of stone circles in
these northern districts, where there yet exist so many popular super-
stitions and customs. Indeed, we find in Camden*s account of
Westmoreland allusion made to the ruins of one ancient round
structure, which has always been considered to have been a temple
dedicated to Diana, but which is now known by the name of Kirks-
head. Many such instances will be found in the ancient monuments
of Scotland. Sometimes there are two circles of stones, at others
three circles, having the same common centre.
From the general arrangement of the stones, one of the largest
having a cavity, at the bottom of which there is a passage for any
liquid sacrifice to run down the side of it, nothing can be more
evident than that the triple circle of stones was intended as an
heathen temple, where Pagan priests performed their idolatrous
ceremonies ; and what is most remarkable is, that most of these
singular structures are still known by the name of chapels or temple
stones ; and one of them, we are told, in the parish of Enesallen, is
24 Stones and Stone Circles.
full of groves, and was formerly an ordinary place of burial, and con-
tinues to be so, for children who die without baptism and for strangers.
There is mention made of one* in the shire of Inverness, which con-
sists of two circles of stones, and was formerly known by the name
of Chapel Piglag, from a lady of that name who used to repair
thither for the exercise of her devotion, before a church was built in
that part of the country. What adds to the interest of this account,
which I have extracted from Camden, is the extraordinary sanctity in
which a neighbouring grove of trees was held. So sacred, indeed,
was it reputed, that no one would cut a branch out of it, and the
women who dwelt near it, when they recovered out of child-bed,
were wont to repair thither, to return their thanks to God, as in other
places of the kingdom they attend churches for the same purpose.
In the midst of this grove there is a well or fountain, called the well
of the chapel, which is also held sacred ; and Dr. Jamieson, in his
"Historical Account of the Culdees," relates a singular instance of
an old man in the North of Scotland, who, though very regular in
his devotions, never addressed the Supreme Being by any other title
than that of Arch Druid, accounting every other derogatory to the
divine Majesty.
It is clear that, for many ages afler the introduction of Christianity
into Britain, the firm hold which Druidism had upon the mind of her
inhabitants was a source of much annoyance to the first missionaries
to this country. Some Pagan monuments were overthrown, but
others were maintained inviolable for ages. But, in order to rendtr
the transition from a false to a true worship less difficult, it was no
uncommon practice with the early missionaries, not merely in Britain
but in other parts of the world, to convert the temples dedicated to
idolatrous uses into Christian churches. This circumstance will
account for the situation of many of our churches, which actually
occupy the ancient sites of Druid temples. It is probable that in
many instances stone circles existed on the site of some of these
churches, and were the scene of religious worship of the first converts
to Christianity : of all figures the Druids most affected the circular.
The Druidical Kir-rock, or circle of stones, gradually was contracted
into kirk, which is now pronounced church. [See Note i.] A kirk,
church, or place of worship in Druidical times, was literally no more
than a circle of stones. I'hese stones, circularly plared, had always
an high stone for the presiding priest or judge. This stone generally
stood single, thereby serving occasionally for the altar or high stone
of sacrifice. Thouj»h in most instances, as Christianity flourished,
other more eligible sites for Christian churches were afterwards found,
yet the ancient kirk or temple stones were visited for ages, though no
worship was performed there. Where no regular church was built in
the district, as was too much the case for many ages, these ancient
* Vide Camden's ** Britfinnia.'*
Stone Circles and Megalithic Remains. 25
stone circles were probably resorted to, and a congregation formed
for the celebration of Christian worship. If such was the case, it
affords sufficient reason why the term kirk-stones should still be
attached to these venerable relics ; and, though few of them still
exist, yet who can look with indifference on those once hallowed rocks,
where the early Christians were accustomed to meet, and to celebrate
the worship of the newly preached Saviour, perhaps in those very
temples which had in still earlier times been dedicated to the
mysterious and bloody ceremonies of the Druidic religion ; thus
turning the altars of perished Paganism into the hallowed temples of
the living God I There are many such stone altars of Druidism in
this and the neighbouring counties ; and I am much deceived if
some of them were not subsequently used as places of worship for
the primitive Christians of this district There is a collection of
rocks in Ogden, in the parish of Halifax, still known by the name of
''Ogden Kirk," which surely indicates that something more than
mere Druidism was the origin of its present name. There is a wood
in the vicinity called Snake Hill, or Snag Hill.*
Not far from this place are still visible the remains of a camp, but
it is not so evident by what people it was formed. It is of a circular
shape, surrounded by a ditch or agger still to be traced, and a vallum
of earth ; the whole divided into two parts. It may have been
Roman, for it was the policy of that people to extirpate all vestiges of
Druidical sway ; and there is abundance of evidence to show that
this now dreary district was occupied by the aboriginal Britons, or
their Druids. This part of the parish of Halifax, when it has under-
gone a more searching examination, will probably afford us further
light on this subject. Celts and arrow-heads, I believe, have been
found formerly within a few miles of the place.
Nor can I omit to mention, as one more example of stone circles
in the parish of Halifax, a ring of stones, which is not altogether
destroyed, in the township of Bankisland. The stones of this circle
are not now erect, but lie in a confused heap, like the ruins of a
building, and it is probable that many of the largest may have been
taken away. It gives the name of Ringstone Edge to the adjacent
moor. No one can doubt, I apprehend, but that this stone circle was
originally constructed by the aboriginal Britons, under the superin-
* A tradition is said to prevail in the neighhourhood to the following effect :
" In days of old there lived in the valley of the Holy Brook a cottager, whose
child, an exceedingly lovely one, had for its companion a snow-white serpent. One
morning, however, the cottager saw the child sharing its pottage with the serpent,
giving to it (as the tradition represents) each alternate spoonful. A movement of
the latter, however, to come nearer the dish was mistaken by the father for a
hostile attack, and he instantly struck it with his bill, severing the snake in two.
From that time the * faerie child ' pined away, and speedily died.'* The record of
the event is still, they say, preserved in the name of an adjoining wood, '* Snake-
hill," or "Snaghill."
26 Stones and Stone Circles.
tendence of the Druids, either as a temple or a court of justice, or
both, as Druidical circles were used for worship and for seats of judg-
ment We find the same thing said of Bethel and Gilgal* in the days
of Samuel, who made them the annual seats of judgment. There is
also a Roman camp in the neighbourhood of Ringstone; so
apparently desirous were the Romans of extirpating the Druidical
priesthood There is also very near to this camp a place called The
Crags, which, both by its British name and the remains dug up from
time to time, seems to have been a retreat in very ancient times for
man or for wild beasts, as it once exhibited the resemblance of a large
cavern. This may have been a Druidical asylum, as it formerly was
covered with oaks, of which immense roots are continually brought
to light in every direction. As this interesting district is contiguous
to my own summer residence, I hope at some future day to have it in
my power to bring to light some further evidence of Druidical oc-
cupancy, especially in that part of the district called Weystone Edge.
In this part of the country there are still standing many rocks of
various shapes and sizes, such as may once have formed a circular
temple, and call for a more patient examination than from their remote
situation they have hitherto received. It has been mentioned in the
earliest records under the name of Booth Deaa The mosses here-
about, when cut into for fuel, exhibit in great abundance the frag-
ments of trees, which makes it probable that it was once woody.
Tacitus in his Annals mentions a grove in Germany which bore the
name of Baduhenna, and it may be that the etymology of both
names is the same, meaning a temple of Diana. The monosyllable
•*both** or "booth" corresponds in sojne degree with the Hebrew "beth"
— a prefix often used in Scripture to signify temple. The Brimham
rocks of this county were probably dedicated to the god Rimmon,
under the title of Beth Rimmon, corrupted into Brimham.
The circular temples of Abury and Stonehenge are known to all. . . .
I might enumerate other circular temples in Ireland, in Anglesey, and
Cornwall, all tending to show that the form of a circle was most
usually adopted in the temples of the first inhabitants of these islands.
.... The rocking-stone at a short distance from the Roman town of
Cambodunum, situate at the borders of Scamonden, near H udders-
field, which has retained the name of Holy Stone to this day, no
doubt gave name to the neighbouring township of Golcar, which is a
contraction from Godle-scar, for so it is spelt in some copies from the
earliest writers. It was the name given to it by our Saxon ancestors,
though it is, like many other names in Domesday, incorrectly spelt
To render Christianity palatable to the Anglo-Saxons, Augustine was
instructed by the Pope to permit the exercise of some of their
ancient peculiarities, by incorporating into the purer faith the less
offensive tenets of their own superstition, and he permitted the con-
* ^ j is a roundish heap of stones.
Stone Circles and Megalithic Remains. 27
version of their temples into Christian churches, by merely destroying
the idols and consecrating the altars. We have no conclusive evi-
dence to show the precise period when a fabric for the celebration of
Christian worship was first erected in this part of the kingdom ; but,
froji ihe abandonment of the Roman station of Cambodunum by the
Saxons, who occupied the less bleak and more defensible position at
Almonbury, and subsequently perhaps the present site of Hudders-
field, we have every reason to believe that a timber edifice was
constructed in both of those places in the early Saxon times.
Camden was incorrect in supposing that a basilica was built at Almon-
bury by Paulinus, which could not be the case, as at some future
opportunity I hope most satisfactorily to show.
J. K. Walker.
On Ancient Stone Chairs and Stones of Inauguration.
[1865, Part /., pp. 429-436.]
There is one class of our megalithic monuments which seems to
have almost entirely escaped the notice of our antiquaries — I allude
to the " stone chair." Having met with a couple of these interesting
relics in my researches, my attention has been directed towards their
origin and uses ; but, like most of our Celtic monuments, little light
can be thrown on their history. What I have been able to glean on
the subject is contained in the following pages. It is a curious fact
that most of those pre-historic remains which we are accustomed to
designate Celtic, are found very widely dififused. The pillar-stone,
the cromlech, the stone circle, and the tumulus are to be traced in
almost every country of the old and new world ; as if some numerous
and powerful aboriginal race had at some early period of the earth's
history swept over our globe, carrying with them their domestic
customs and religious rites, the nature of which are only dimly
shadowed forth by the rude memorials they have left behind them.
The class of monument now under consideration has been found
in countries widely apart Examples of the stone chair in its most
ancient types have been met with in Ireland, Wales, Greece, and
South America. From the remotest historic times the chair has been
associated with the ideas of power, sovereignty, and dignity. The
exhumed sculptures of ancient Nineveh represent her monarchs on
chairs, and divinities borne in procession seated on the same The
great statue of Jupiter, by PhicUas, was seated in a chair of ivory.
The Jupiter Optimus Maximus of the Romans was seated in a curule
chair in his temple on the Capitoline hill. With us, the seat of royal
dignity is associated with or stands for the sovereignty of states and
kingdoms. Thus we speak of the thrones of England, France, or
Russia. In this sense it also stands for high academical attainments
and offices : thus we speak of the chairs of history, of philosophy, of
38 Stones and Stone Circles.
science, of poetry, etc No doubt in semi-barbarous times the rude
chair of stone was also associated with similar ideas. Upon it the
ancient kings and toparchs were inaugurated with rude but impressive
ceremonies, and from it the chief, judge, or lawgiver dispensed
justice.
I shall now proceed to describe such of these monuments as have
come under my notice in Ireland, as also the uses to which they have
been applied, as far as I have been able to ascertaia The accom-
panying sketch represents the coronation chair of the O'Neills, of
Clan-Aodh-Buidhe (Clandeboy), a branch of that ancient and princely
house now represented by Lord O'Neill, of Shane's Castle, County
Antrim.
This chair stood for ages on the hill of Castlereagh, about two
miles from Belfast, the inauguration place of the chiefs of that race.
After the final ruin of the family in the reign of James I. this monu-
ment was thrown down from its original position, and lay neglected
for several years, until about the year 1750, when the then sovereign
of Belfast, Mr. Stewart Banks, had it removed, and built into the
wall of the butter-market of that town, where it was used as a seat,
until the demolition of the market in 1829. It was at this juncture
rescued from the hands of the workmen by a Mr. Thomas Fitz-
Morriss, who removed it to his garden in Lancaster Place, where it
stood until about the year 1832, when it was purchased by Roger C.
Walker, Esq., barrister, who removed it to his residence, Rathcarrick,
County Sligo, where it still remains.
The chair is rudely and massively constructed of common whin-
stone. Respecting its antiquity we can only offer conjecture ; from
its extreme rudeness, its age and use was probably long anterior to
the accession of the O'Neills to the chieftainry of Clandeboy, whose
names have been associated with it for several centuries. Aodh
O'Neill, the head of the ancient house of Hy-Niall, died in the year
1230, leaving two sons, Niall-Roe and Aodh-Meith. The descend-
ants of these branched off into two distinct families. The hereditary
lordship of Tyrone remained in the family of Niall-Roe, while the
descendants of Aodh-Meith obtained the territory of Dal-aradie,
which subsequently was called Clan-Aodh-Buidhe, "the clan of Yellow
Hugh," anglicised Clandeboy. The last attempt to inaugurate an
O'Neill at the chair of Castlereagh was made in the year 1568, and is
thus noticed in a letter of Sir Henry Sidney's, dated March, 1568:
" A large band of Scotts, intending, as was said, to create a new Lord
of Clandeboy, not farre from Knockfergus, went under that pretence
to enter a wood near Castell Reagh."
The elder branch of the O'Neills had their place of inauguration at
or near TuUahogue, a village in the parish of Disertcreagh, barony of
Dungannon, and County of Tyrone. The particular spot is still to be
seen, about a mile east of the village. It is a large circular rath, en-
Ancient Stone Chairs and Stones of Inauguration. 29
compassed by deep trenches and earthworks ; within this rath was
placed the ancient chair. Its site was shown on an old map of
Ulster, engraved from a survey by Lythe, made in 157 1, and marked
" Ye stone where O'Neale is chose." This monument is no longer
in existence, having been unfortunately destroyed, as we shall see by-
and-by. That Tullahogue was the usual place where the O'Neills
were invested with their dignity is evident from some notices in the
** Annals of the Four Masters," as follows, a.d. 1432 : — " Owen the
son of Niall Oge O'Neill was inaugurated his (O'Neill's) successor on
Leac-na-Riogh at Tullahogue." Leac-na-Riogh means literally the
'^ Stone of the Kings.'' Again, at a.d. 1455, ^^ ^^^^ ^^ follow-
ing notice : — " The successor of St Patrick (/>., the Archbishop of
Armagh), Maguire Mac Mahon, and all the O'Neills went with
Henry the son of Owen, who was son of Niall Oge, to Tullahogue,
to inaugurate him, and they called him O'Neill, after the lawful
manner,^* The last notice we have of the investiture of an O'Neill
at Tullahogue is contained in a postscript to a letter of Sir Henry
Bagenal, dated the 9th of September, 1595, and now in the State
Paper Office. He writes, " Olde O'Neyle is dead, and the Traitour "
(the Earl of Tyrone) " gone to the stone to receave that name."
The ultimate fate of this monument is thus given in Cox's *' Hibemia
Anglicana," voL L, p. 447 :
"On the 20th of August" (1602) "the Lord-Deputy took the
field, and encamped between Newry and Armagh ; and understand-
ing that Tyrone was in Fermanagh, he marched over the bridge
neare Fort Mountjoy, and placed a ward neare Dungannon, and
staid five days at Tullahogue, and broke the chair of stone whereon
the Oneals used to be inaugurated"
The destruction of this stone chair was in accordance with the
then policy of the English Government They had proscribed the
ancient laws, language, and even the dress of the Irish ; it was there-
fore no wonder that this monument, which had been for ages conse-
crated in the memories of the race of Tir-Owen as the sacred spot
where the chiefs of their clan could only be inaugurated, should be
destroyed, in order to obliterate from the minds and memories of
this restless and warlike race all hope of ever seeing again an O'Neill
on the rude throne of his ancestors. Several stones said to have
been fragments of this ancient relic were in the garden belonging to
the Rev. James Lourey, Rector of Disencreagh, about the year 1768.
The place of inauguration of the O'Donnells, hereditary chiefs of
Tirconnell, was on the hill of Doune, near Killmacrennan, County
Donegal It is so mentioned in several places by the Four Masters.
Thus at A.D. 1461 : — "After this defeat at Ceann-Maghair these
victorious chieftains went to Kill-mic-JSenainy and Hugh Roe (O'Don-
nell), the son of Niall-Garv, was styled lord after the lawful manner.^*
30 Stones and Stone Circles.
Again, at A.D. 1505 we have the following notice :
"An army was led by the son of O'Donnell (Hugh Oge, son of
Hugh Roe), into Tyrone, and O'Neiirs town, Dungannon, the town
of Hugh the son of Donnell O'Neill, were burned by them ; and he
traversed from the Abhaiun-mor inwards without meeting any oppo-
sition. Upon his return he laid siege to Castlederg, took that
castle from the sons of Niall, the son of Art, and left his warders in
it ; and he proceeded from thence to KiU-tnic-Nenain^ where he was
nominated Lord of Tirconnell by the consent of God and maa"
In a foot-note the translator (IJr. O'Donovan) states that the in-
auguration stone of the O'Donnells was removed from the hill of
Doune to the ancient church of Killmacrennan, where it lay in the
ruined chancel until about forty years since, when it was either stolen
or destroyed
It will interest the antiquary to ascertain what were the rites and
ceremonies practised by the Irish in the election and investiture of
their kings and chiefs, particularly as it would appear that many of
these forms were observed on such occasions down to a late period,
as is testified by Spencer.
The place selected for the ceremonies of inauguration was usually
a natural or artificial eminence in the centre of a large magh (field)
or plain. The elected chief occupied either a stone chair or stood
upon a flat stone sacred to the purpose, and called Leac-na-Righ,
"the flag or stone of the kings,'' and which was preserved for
centuries, and regarded as the palladium of the state. Some account
of the ceremonies observed upon these occasions is given in the
" Cambrensis Eversus " of Gratianus Lucius, published by the Irish
Celtic Society, and which particularly refers to the inauguration of
Uie princes of Tirconnell :
"Whenever the prince elect was about to be proclaimed, the
O'Domhnaill, the lords of Tir-Connaill and all other orders of the
state assembled on the appointed hill. One of the lords arose, and
holding in his hand a white wand perfectly straight, and without the
slightest bend, he presented it to the chieftain elect, with the follow-
ing words : — * Receive the emblematic type of thy dignity : now let
the unsullied whiteness and straightness of this wand be thy model
in all thy acts, so that no calumnious tongue can expose the slightest
stain in the purity of thy life, nor any favoured friend ever seduce thee
from dealing out even-handed justice to all. May good fortune ac-
company thee on assuming thy appointed dignity : receive and guard
the insignia of the chief government of this state.*" — (VoL iiL,
p. 341.)
Spencer's "View of Ireland" was originally published in 1596; it
is in the form of a dialogue between Eudoxius and Irenaeus, and
contains a curious passage in reference to the present subject It will
be found at p. 10 of the Dublin edition of 1809, as follows :
Ancient Stone Chairs and Stones of Inauguration. 3 1
" Iren, It is a custome amongst all the Irish that presently after the
death of any of their chiefe Lordes or Captaines, they doe presently
assemble themselves to a place generally appointed and knowne unto
them to choose another in his steed, where they doe nominate and
elect for the most part, not the eldest sonne, nor any of the children
of the Lord deceased, but the next to him of blood, that is the eldest
and worthiest, as commonly the next brother unto him if he have
any, or the next cousin, or so forth, as any is elder in that kinred or
sept, and then next to him doe they chose the next of the blood to be
Tanist, who shall next succeed him in the said Captainry, if he live
thereunto.
^^ Eudox. Doe they not use any ceremony in this election? for
all barbarous nations are commonly great observers of ceremonies and
superstitious rites.
'^ Irm, They use to place him that shal be their Captaine upon a
stone alwayes reserved for that purpose, and placed commonly upon a
hill : in some of which I have seen formed and engraven a foot,
which they say was the measure of their first Captaine's foot, whereon
he standing receives an oath to preserve all the auncient former
customes of the countrey inviolable, and to deliver up the succession
peaceably to his Tanist, and then had a wand delivered unto him by
some whose proper office that is : after which, descending from the
stone, he turneth himself round, thrice forward and thrice backward."
The author of " Cambrensis Eversus" gives an interesting account of
the inauguration of the Dukes of Carinthia, the ceremonial of which
has a remarkable conformity in most particulars to the Irish customs.
His inauguration takes place on a large plain, and a sacred stone of in-
auguration is provided, upon which he takes his stand. The similitude
between the customs of tfie Carinthians and Irish on these occasions b
very clearly and ably illustrated by Mr. Herbert Hore in a paper con-
tributed to voL V. of the " Ulster Journal of Archaeology.'* The
learned Keysler mentions the inauguration stone of the Dukes of
Carinthia in the fallowing terms : — " De lapide praegrandi super quern
Carinthiae Duces olim fuere inaugurati notior res est quam ut
pluribus eam illustrare necesse habeamus." — (*'Antiquitates Sep-
tentrionales," p. 94.)
The traveller Pococke visited the field of installation of the ancient
chiefs of Carinthia, which he describes as follows :
'* From Maria-Sol we went down into the plain, where there is a
curious piece of antiquity, which is now called Kaiserstool ; a large
stone 6 feet long and 5 broad is set up on end, on the west side a
stone is put up against it ; between this and the great stone there are
two small ones, on one of which there is some part of a Roman
inscription. The seat on the other side is a stone laid on an old
Gothic capital, with a stone on each side of it for the arms to rest
oa Towards the top of the great stone on that side is cut rvdolphvs
32 Stones and Stone Circles.
Dvx, who was the first peaceable possessor of Carinthia. iEoeas
Sylvius gives a very long account of an extraordinary ceremony per-
formed here on investing the Duke in his dominions.'^ — (" A Descrip-
tion of the East," etc, 3 vols. foL, London, 1745, vol. iil, p. 255.)
Neither Gratianus Lucius nor Spencer, already quoted, refers to the
curious traditionary custom of the shoe or slipper in these ceremonies.
Dr. O'Donovan states that a tradition existed in the country that
O'Hagan, the hereditary Rechtaire, or lawgiver of Tir-owen, and who
had his residence in the great Rath of Tullahogue, inaugurated O'Neill
by putting on his golden slipper or sandal. I'he slipper always appears
in the armorial bearings of the O'Hagans. (" Hy Fiachrach," p. 432.)
Each provincial chief had his Rechtaire, or Brehon ; his office was that
of a judge, umpire, arbitrator ; he was supposed to be well versed in
that code called Brehon law, a very remarkable compilation, which is
still extant in Irish MSS., and which a Government Commission is at
present engaged in collecting and translating. [See Note 2.]
The office of Rechtaire was generally hereditary in a particular
family. One of his most special duties was to inaugurate his lord
into the chieftaincy of the tribe. Dr. O'Donovan (quoting from
O'Mulcoury's MS. of Keatinge's " History of Ireland ") gives the
following list of provincial chiefs, their places of inauguration, and of
the families in whom lay the right of administering the ceremony :
O'Neill More, at Tullahogue, inaugurated by O'Hagan.
O'Donnell, at Kilmacrenan. by O'FirghiL
O'Neill, of Clan-Aohd-Buidhe. at Castlereagh.
O'Brien, at Magh Adhor, in Clare, by Mac Namara.
Mac Murrough, at Knockan-Bogha, by O'Nolan.
O'Conor, at Carnfree, Roscommon, by Mac Dermot
O'Dowda, at Can\ Auchalgaidh, Sliga
Mac Guire, at Lisnaskea, Fermanagh.
Mac Carthy More, at Lisbanagher, Kerry, by O'Sullivan More.
O'Byme, at Dun-Cailligh-Beire, by Mac Kehoe.
O Rorke, at Cruachan O'Cuproin, Leitrim.
As might be expected, on the introduction of Christianity, the clergy
interfered very frequently with the privileges of the Rechtaire on these
occasions. Among other instances we are informed by Cumian, Abbot
of lona in a.d. 657, that St Columba inaugurated Aidan, King of
the Picts.
From a review of the most ancient authorities it is evident that the
Irish Celts from a very remote period had certain and well-defined
ceremonies, which were used at the installation of their kings and
territorial chiefs ; that they were somewhat modified on the introduc-
tion of Christianity; but that in all essential particulars they con-
tinued the same. The conditions upon which they were chosen, and
the ceremonial, are thus summed up by Dr. O'Donovan :
'* I. That he should be of the blood of the original conqueror or
Ancient Stone Chairs and Stones of Inauf[uration. 33
acquirer of the territory, and free from all personal blemishes,
deformities, and defects ,and be of fit age to lead the clan to the
field.
'* 2. That the greater part of the sub-chiefs and freeholders should
declare in his favour.
'* 3. That the inauguration should be celebrated at a remarkable
place in the territory appointed of old for the purpose, where there
was a stone with the impression of two feet, believed to be the size
of the feet of their first captain, chieftain, or acquirer of the
territory.
"4. That the hereditary historian or chronicler of the territory
should be present to read to the chief about to be installed the heads
of the law relating to the conduct of the chieftain, and that the
latter should swear to observe those laws and to maintain the
customs of the territory inviolable.
" 5. That after taking this oath, the chief laid aside his sword and
other weapons, upon which the historian of the district, or some
other person whose proper office it was, handed him a straight white
wand as a sceptre and an emblem of purity and rectitude, to indicate
that his people were to be so obedient to him that he required no
other weapon to command them.
" 6. That after receiving this straight white wand, one of his sub-
chiefs put on his shoe or sandal, in token of obedience, or threw a
slipper over his head in token of good luck.
" 7. That after the foregoing ceremonies were performed, one of
his sub-chiefs pronounced his surname without the Christian name in
a loud voice, after whom it was pronounced in succession by the
clergy according to their dignity, and by his sub-chiefs and free-
holders according to their respective ranks. After this the chief
turned thrice round forwards and thrice backwards, in honour of the
most holy Trinity, as the Irish still do all good things, and to view
his people and his territory in every direction ; which being done, he
was the legitimate chief of his name." — {Hy Fiachrach^ p. 451.)
One remarkable custom in this ceremonial was the putting on of
the shoe or sandal, and which is occasionally referred to by the com-
pilers of the " Annals of the Four Masters." Thus at a.d. 1468 : —
" Donough O'Conor (t^., O'Conor Roe) died at an advanced age,
and after a well-spent life ; and Felim Finn O'Conor was inaugurated
in his place by O'Donnel Mac William, and MacDermot (O'Conor)
in as meet a manner as any lord had for some time before been
nominated, and his shoe was put on him by MacDermot."
The inauguration place of the O'Conors was on the hill of Carnfree,
now called the Carn, situated near Tulsk, in the county of Roscom-
mon. The same custom is also alluded to in the " Annals of Duald
Mac Firbis," at a.d. 1461 : —
" A great army gathered by Mac William Burke, and by his kins-
VOL. VI. 3
34 Stones and Si one Circles.
men, and they marched towards Machery-Connaght to release (by
agreement) Felim flinn from Brian Ballagh's sons, and gave him as
much as he desired, and sureties of the best of Connaght to make
all things good and true accordingly : and so he let Felim out of his
gyves on Wednesday, and he brought all these potentates to Carn-
frygh-fitz-fidley (Carnfree), and Mac Dermoda did put on his shoe
after tying it," eta
It is evident from these passages that in taking his place on the
sacred stone of inauguration, the chief put off his shoes or sandals,
and that either his own, or one specially used for the occasion, was
placed on his foot, as a token of submission or fealty by the installing
noble.
It is also stated by the noble editor of By Fiachrach that he threw
a shoe or slipper over the new chieftain's head as a spell of good luck
or prosperity to his reign. These shoe customs are evidently of
Oriental origin. Amongst the Eastern nations the shoe indicated
authority, and was used in legalising bargains and compacts. '' Now
this was the manner in former times in Israel, concerning redeeming,
and concerning changing, for to confirm all things ; a man plucked
off his shoe, and gave it to his neighbour, and this was a testimony
in Israel. Therefore the kinsman said to Boaz, Buy it for thee. So
he drew off his shoe." (Ruth iv. 7, 8.) Loosing the shoe from ofT
the feet was an act of judicial degradation under certain circumstances
among the Jews. In the Mosaic law, which provided that a surviving
brother should marry the widow of his deceased brother, the refusal
of the former to observe the law subjected him to an act of public
degradation, as we have it stated in the Book of Deuteronomy
(xxv. 9, 10) : **Then shall his brother's wife come unto him in the
presence of the elders, and loose his shoe from off his foot, and spit
in his face, and shall answer and say, So shall it be done unto that
man that will not build up his brother's house. And his name shall
be called in Israel, The house of him that hath his shoe loosed"
Loosing the shoe from off the foot was also a mark of respect paid
to sacred persons and places. Thus Moses was commanded to take
off his shoes at the burning bush : " Put off thy shoes from off thy
feet, for the place whereon thou standest is holy ground" (Exodus
iii. 5.) In the interview which Joshua had with the angel of the
covenant before Jericho he was commanded to perform the same act
of reverence for the same reasoa (Joshua v. 15.) The author of
the " Pillars of Hercules," describing a Jewish wedding at Tangier,
writes : —
" I was standing beside the bridegroom when the bride entered : as
she crossed the threshold, he stooped down and slipped off his shoe,
and struck her with the heel on the nape of the neck. I at once
saw the interpretation of the passage in Scripture, respecting the
transfer of the shoe to another, in case the brother-in-law did not
Ancient Stone Chairs and Stones of Inauguration. 35
exercise his privilege. .... The regalia of Morocco is enriched
with a pair of embroidered slippers, which are, or used to be, carried
before the Sultan, as amongst us the sceptre and sword" — (Vol. L,
P- 305)-
In Ireland from time immemorial it has been customary to use the
shoe as a token of good luck. Thus when a traveller went a journey,
or an individual departed on any enterprise, the shoe was thrown after
him, or he was struck with a shoe on the nape of the neck. The same
ceremony was used to a bride or bridegroom when leaving their
parents' houses for the church. \Vhen the former was put to bed, all
the unmarried females in the house assembled in the nuptial chamber;
she was then blindfolded, and a slipper placed in her hand, which she
threw at random ; whoever was struck by the lucky missile considered
it a happy omen that she should be married within the twelve months.
These customs are in full force to the present day.
[1865, PartL.pp, 548-558.]
That the golden or gilded slipper or sandal used in the inaugura-
tion ceremonies of Irish toparchs was one specially kept for the
purpose is quite probable ; and I have no doubt but that the shoe
of thin sheet copper or bronze which was exhibited in 1852, among
other antiquities, at the Belfast Museum, and which puzzled all who
examined it, may have been one of these ceremonial relics. (" Ulster
Journal of Archaeology," No. iv., p. 23.) The place of inauguration
of the kings of Ireland was at the once celebrated hill of Tara,
situated in the county of Meath, and which, from a period antecedent
to written history, had been the principal seat of the monarchs of the
island. I shall not attempt to give any historical notices of this
locality ; the history of Tara is the history of Ireland, and those who
would desire to know more of this interesting spot will do well to
consult vol. xviii., part 2, of the Trans, of the Royal Irish Academy,
in which will be found a paper on the '* History and Antiquities of
Tara Hill," contributed by Dr. Petrie, and upon which has been
bestowed all that learned and laborious research which has cha-
racterized the writings of that gentleman.
Here is a rath, situated on an eminence and encircled by two
fosses and parapets, within which was a mound and chair. This is
popularly known as the " King's Chair Rath," and was in all pro-
bability the actual spot where the ceremony took place. In the
ancient MS. accounts of Tara this place is called Rath-na-Seanadh,
Le,^ the Rath of the Synods or assemblies.
It is also probable that this was the site of the celebrated Lia Fail,
or coronation stone of the kings of Ireland, and which is now believed
to be under the coronation throne of our own sovereigns in West-
minster Abbey. The Irish accounts inform us that this miraculous
stone was brought into Ireland by the Tuath de-Danan colony, that
3—2
36 Stones and Stone Circles.
it was placed at Tara, and that on it the inauguration ceremonies
were performed. The fable of this stone having been lent for the
coronation of Fergus Mac Ere in the fifth century, of its having been
retained by the Dalriadic race of kings, and preserved at Scone,
from whence it was taken by Edward I. and placed in its present
position, is a forgery of the thirteenth century, persisted in, and
perpetuated by Fordun, Winton, and Boethius ; and adopted by suc-
ceeding writers on their authority. That such a stone once existed
at Tara is certain ; its locality, use, and the magical virtues ascribed
to it, are thus described in an ancient topographical work called the
Dinnseanchus^ a compilation of the twelfth century; among other
tracts in this work is one describing Tara, its raths, mounds, pillar-
stones, etc. ; the author thus refers to the Lia Fail : —
" Fal lies by the side of DwnJiana n-giall to the north, />., the
stone that roared under the feet of each king that took possession
of (the throne of) Ireland. Fal, the name of the stone, means ^, aii^
' the under sXone^* /.^., the stone under the king." — (** Hist and Antiq.
of Tara Hill," p. 138.)
AVe have here the true etymology of the word given by an early
writer ; what becomes of the etymological fable of " the stone of
destiny," and what becomes of the statements of the above writers
respecting its removal to Scotland in the fifth, when a native writer
describes its existence at Tara in the twelfth century ? It is utterly
impossible to believe that a stone invested with such a traditionary
sanctity, and looked upon as the palladium of the legitimate
monarchy of Ireland, should have been so frivolously lent, and so
quietly suffered to be retained. In the whole range of our ancient
annalists there is no allusion to such a circumstance, and we must
therefore believe it to be, what it really is, a forgery of the mediaeval
Scottish writers. Dr. Petrie dissents from the notion of the stone in
Westminster Abbey being the veritable Lia Fail, and is of opinion
that it still exists at Tara ; from the latter statement I must, however,
reluctantly dissent, and for these reasons. The stone fixed upon by
that gentleman is a cylindrical obelisk now standing in the Rath-na-
Riogh : it stands at present about 6 feet above ground, but according
to the Doctor the real height is said to be 12 feet, the remainder
being sunk in the earth ; the Doctor states that this " obeliscal pillar-
stone lay in a prostrate position, and in the locality indicated by the
native writers of the tenth and twelfth centuries." He does not, I
am sure, mean to state that this stone was in that position in the time
of these writers, but that previous to its removal to its present site in
the year 1798, it lay in the locality where these annalists record that
the veritable inauguration stone was placed in their day. The size
and form of the existing monument is quite opposed to the idea of
an installation stone, which must certainly have been a fiat flagstone,
upon which the monarch or chief stood, and in that position went
Ancient Stone Chairs and Stones of Inau^ration. 37
through certain ceremonies which certainly could not be performed
upon a perfectly cylindrical body. Again, no people are more
tenacious in preserving the tra<iitions and relics of the past than
are the Irish. Was the Lia Fail in existence at Tara, that fact
would never have died out among the people ; the sacred relic
would have been pointed out from generation to generation, and
its traditions carefully preserved. I am of opinion that this monu-
ment does not exist either at Tara or Westminster; I think it
more than probable that it was destroyed by the Norman invaders
in the latter end of the twelfth or beginning of the thirteenth
century. Meath became very early an appanage of the English
Crown, and was granted to that fearless and hardy adventurer Hugo
de Lacy. From an early period of the English dominion in Ireland,
the constant and undeviating policy of the conquerors was to
denationalise the conquered ; and we have abundant historic evidence
in the various laws passed from the thirteenth to the seventeenth
centuries of this fact We have seen that the language, dress, and
social customs of the people became the subjects of penal enact-
ments ; everything that could remind them of their former inde-
pendence, and that preserved the traditions of past glories, as far as
the victors had the power, was banished from the sight and memories
of the natives. We have seen the inauguration seat of the 0*Neils
destroyed by the Lord Deputy Mountjoy ; there is therefore nothing
very speculative in supposing that the Lia Fail, a monument of far
more importance and interest in the minds of the people, should
have shared the same fate at the hands of Hugo de Lacy, or some of
his immediate descendants.
Dr. Borlase, in describing the stone circles of Cornwall, and the
assemblies held therein, and -the ceremonies practised, alludes to the
stones of inauguration which were frequently an accompaniment of
those monuments ; he writes : —
*' This custom of choosing princes by nobles standing in a circle
upon rocks, is said to have remained among the northern nations
till the reign of Charles IV. and the Golden Bull, a.d. 1356. Some
of these circles have a large stone in the middle, as the monument
near Upsal in Sweden, called Morasten, of which Olaus Magnus
gives us both the description and use. On this Morasten Ericus was
made King of Sweden, no longer since than the year 1396. In
Denmark also there are monuments of this kind, and Macdonald was
crowned King of the Isles, in the isle of Ysla, standing upon a stone
with a deep impression on the top of it, made on purpose to receive
his feet It was also the custom to sit on stones placed in the same
circular manner, during the time of council, law, or election, and the
seat where the king sat is still in Denmark called Kon[ig]-stolen, or
king's seat, as that whereon the Queen was crowned is called Droning-
stolen. in the Holm, as they call it in Shetland (1.^., the Law-Ting),
38 Stones and Stone Circles.
there are four great stones upon which sat the judge, clerk, and other
officers of the court." — (Borlase's " Antiq. of Cornwall," p. 193.)
The election and the installation of the kings of Denmark were
also conducted in a similar manner to the ceremonies we have already
described as in use among the Irish Celts, as we find from Mallet's
" Northern Antiquities :" —
" They still," says our author, " show the places where these elec-
tions were made, and as Denmark was for a long time divided into
three kingdoms, we find accordingly three principal monuments of
this custom ; the one near Lunden in Scania, the other at Leyra or
Lethra in Zealand, and the third near Viborg in Jutland These
monuments, whose rude bulk has preserved them from the ravages of
time, are only vast unhewn stones, commonly twelve in number, set
upright, and placed in the form of a circle \ in the middle is erected
a stone much larger than the rest, on which they made a seat for the
king. The other stones served as a barrier to keep off the populace,
and marked the place of those whom the people had appointed to
make the selection We know that this custom of electing
their kings in the open field prevailed among all the northern nations,
and was for a long time necessary because they had no cities. The
emperors of Germany were for many ages elected after the same
manner."— (Bohn's edit, p. 128.)
The monument depicted above is situated in a grove of stunted
oaks, a short distance from Killiney Hill, in the County of Dublin,
and is thus described by Mr. D. Alton : —
"Near this hill, at the residence of Mr. O'Hara, in a circular
enclosure of stunted oaks, is one of these few remarkable Brehon
chairs which yet stand in the island It presents the appearance of
a large arm-chair of stone, with a slab step between two large rocks,
all of granite. At the distance of a few yards behind it, is a screen-
like granite slab, standing nearly perpendicular, and pierced about
half through at the side fronting the back of the chair with a large
hole," etc— (" History of the County of Dublin," p. 894.)
The same author describes another of these monuments, situated
in the demesne of Glen Southwell, parish of Rathfarnham, and County
of Dublin ; he writes : —
"The visitor will see here a very remarkable Brehon chair sur-
rounded by most venerable thorns. This relic is composed of three
large upright granite slabs, the two sides being about 8J feet high,
the back 7 feet There is no stone where the seat should be, but a
very large one lies beside it, resting in an inclined position on smaller
ones," — (Ibid.y p. 790.)
Captain Josias Bodley, in his " Account of a Journey into Lecale,"
etc, published in the " Ulster Journal of Archaeology," vol. ii., men-
tions his visit to " the Well and Chair of St Patrick " at Struel in
the County of Down. The editor in a foot-note states : —
Ancient Stone Chairs and Stones of Inauguration. 39
" These are still in existence at Struel, about a mile south-east of
DownpatricL St Patrick's chair is a recess formed by three large
stones, or rocks, on the top of the precipitous hill, up which those
doing penance had to climb, and in which they in turn sat down."
-(P. 89.)
Martin, in his " Description of the Western Isles," gives some
account of the inauguration of the ancient kings of the Hebrides on
an island in Loch Finlagan, in Islay. He writes : —
" There was a big stone 7 feet square, in which there was made a
deep impression to receive the feet of McDonald; for he was crowned
King of the Isles standing on this stone, and swore that he would
continue his vassals in the possession of their lands, and do exact
justice to all his subjects ; and then his father's sword was put in his
hands. The Bishop of Argyle and seven priests anointed him King
in presence of all the heads of the tribes who were his vassals ; at
which time the orator rehearsed a catalogue of his ancestors . . .
When the chief entered on the government of the clan, he was
placed on a pyramid of stones, a white rod was delivered to him, and
the chief Druid or orator pronounced a stimulating panegyric on the
ancient pedigree, valour, and liberality of his family, all which he
proposed to the young chieftain for imitation."
That there should be a strict conformity between the inauguration
customs of Ireland and the Western Isles and Highlands of Scotland,
is not to be wondered at, the natives of both being of the same stock,
having one language, and being in all respects one people ; their very
domestic habits, customs, and traditions being the same.
Wales.
Among the ancient Cymry the stone chair was a usual and
essential appendage to the Gorsedd, or place of assembly of the
Bards. The situation and construction of the Gorsedd are carefully
described by the ancient Bardic writers. The following quotations
are taken from a paper by the Rev. J. Williams (Ab-Ithel), in the
"ArchaeologiaCambrensis," vol. for 1850, entitled "Druidic Stones ": —
** It is an institutional usage to form a conventional circle of stones
on the summit of some conspicuous ground, so as to enclose any
requisite area of greensward, the stones being so placed as to allow
sufficient space for a man to stand between each two of them, except
that the two stones of the circle, which most directly confront the
eastern sun, should be sufficiently apart to allow at least. ample space
for three men between them, thus affording an easy ingress into the
circle. This large space is called the entrance or portal ; in front of
which, at the distance of either three fathoms, or of three times
three fathoms, a stone called a station-stofie should be so placed as to
indicate the eastern cardinal point ; to the north of which another
40 Stones and Stone Circles.
stone should be placed, so as to face the eye of the rising sun at the
longest summers day ; and to the south of it an additional one
pointing to the position of the rising sun at the shortest winter's day.
These three are called station-stones ; but in the centre of the circle
a stone larger than the others should be so placed that diverging lines
drawn from its middle to the three station-stones may point severally
and directly to the three particular positions of the rising sun which
they indicate."— (" Jolo MSS.," p. 445-)
*'The place of assembly shsdl be upon the grassy face of the
earth, and chairs shall be placed there, namely, stones ; and where
stones cannot be obtained, then in their stead turfs, and the chair
of assembly shall be in the middle of the Gorsedd."— (" Jolo MSS.,"
p. 627.)
Again, in the same authority we find the following :
'' A chair and Gorsedd of the British Bard shall be held conspicu-
ously in the face of the sun in the eye of lights and under the expansive
freedom of the sky^ that all may see and hear."— ("Jolo MSS.,"
P- 43«)
I am indebted to the Rev. £. L. Bamewell, Ruthin, for the follow-
ing sketch of a stone chair now at Peel Park, near Ruthin, the seat
of Lord Bagot
The above interesting relic was originally removed from a stone
circle near the above-mentioned place by an old farmer, who, thinking,
as he said, " it would make a capital horse-block,'' had it conveyed to
his farm-house, from which ignominious position it was rescued by its
present proprietor. Davis, in his " Celtic Researches," mentions the
stone chiEur of Idris, the giant and astronomer, after whom one of the
highest peaks in Wales is called " Cadair Idris." He states that his
chair is cut out of the rock on the summit of the mountain (p. 173).
Many of the Welsh peaks are called chairs, as] Cadair Arthur, Cadair
Ferwyn, Cadair Gwladus; we have also Arthur's Seat, near Edinburgh,
and the mountain called Red Chair, in the County of Cork, Ireland.
It is probable that these ''high places" were remarkable sites for
assemblies of the people for religious, judicial, or military purposes,
or were places of Bardic convocation, and were thus called after the
chair, seat, or throne which formed a conspicuous feature in the
Gorsedd.
Cornwall.
Borlase describes a " Druid's seat of judgment " at Cambre, in
Cornwall He writes :
" I have seen several of the seats or benches of judgment, particu-
larly in the Scilly Isles, but none so distinct and so manifestly pointing
the use they were intended for as this." — (" Antiquities of Cornwall,"
P- "5)
Ancient Stone Chairs and Stones of Inauguration. 41
Greece.
Among the ancient Greeks, or perhaps the Pelasgic colonists who
preceded the Hellenes in the occupation of Arcadia and Thessaly,
stone chairs hewn out of solid monoliths, or out of the live rock, were
not infrequent. The following example from '^ Dodwell's Cyclopean
and Pelasgic Remains in Greece and Italy " is interesting as having
been found by that laborious and accomplished antiquary among the
ruins of the Pelasgian city of Libea, in Phocis.
The church of the Holy Virgin in the modem village of Chaeroneia
contains an ancient thrones^ or chair of white marble, brought from
the neighbouring ruins of the ancient Acropolis. The villagers call
it the throne of Plutarch. Chseroneia is said to have been founded
by Chaeron, the son of Ap)ollo. Dodwell also mentions stone chairs
as existing at a ruined city at the foot of Mount Parnassus, and at
the sacred forests of Epidauros. A remarkable one, existing at
Mytilene, has been illustrated in a work published by the Count
de Choiseul GoufBer. Two, with inscriptions, have been discovered
by Sir William Gell in the ruins of a temple at Rhamnus (see '^ Un-
edited Antiq. of Attica "). Pausanias also frequently mentions them.
Dodwell writes :
" The thranos, oxproedriay was for great persons, even for divinities ;
and it is probable that some of those which still remain in Greece
contained statues, not of marble, but of ivory and gold, or of wood
Pausanias gives the name of thrones to the seat of the Olympian
Jupiter, and of the Amyclean Apollo."
South America.
With the manners and customs of the ancient peoples of Central
America, and of those inhabiting the eastern side of the Andes, we
have very little acquaintance. What little we do know has come to
us through the early Spanish writers, whose statements are deeply
tinctured by religious prejudices. The remains of their temples,
palaces, and tombs, give us some notion of the state of the arts of
design and construction among them, and of the nature of their
funeral rites ; but of their mode of lijfe, government, jurisprudence,
religion, ceremonies, we have no correct information. Stone chairs
are mentioned by several travellers as existing in Peru and ChilL
" Villavicencio says two leagues north of Monte Christo, in the
district of Manta, on the flat summit of a law mountain^ is a circU of
thirty stone seatSy with arms ; and that they in all probability were
used on solemn occasions by the chiefs of Cara, ere they conquered
Quito." — (Bollaert's "Antiq. and Ethn. of South America," p. 80.)
This is evidently the stone circle of Ireland, Wales, and Cornwsdl ;
but instead of the assembled chiefs, nobles, or bards standing each
42 Stones atid Stone Circles.
by his rude pillar-stone, as was the custom according to Borlase, each
in this instance occupied a stone chair. Central America exhibits its
quota of stone circles, pillar-stones, cairns, etc, to puzzle the anti-
quary.
Again:
" Among the ruins of Hatun Colla (Peru) are observed the remains
of monuments, and it is said that here was the residence of a prince,
whose palaces and town were covered by the waters of the lake,
although history is silent as to any such event Here is also found a
chair of stone (a species of lava) with its back made of a single piece,
which is said to have been the throne of the lord of the place." —
(Von Tschudi's and Riviero's " Peruvian Antiq.," p. 293.)
Markham, in describing the wonderful remains of the Cyclopean
fortress of Cuzco, states that :
'' On the summit of the Rodadero, a succession of steps with two
stone seats is hewn out of the solid rock, and from these seats the
Incas are said to have watched the progress of their gigantic under-
taking." — ("Cuzco and Lima," by Markham, p. 116.)
While on this subject it may not be out of place to notice some
examples of mediaeval stone chairs. Some of those I am about to
mention are of considerable antiquity, and were probably the chairs
or seats of the founders of the church, or of the bishop of the diocese
in which such were situated. The sketch in the preceding page is
from De Caumont's " Ab^^daire d'Arch&logie," vol. L, p. 248.
He states that it belongs to the church of St Vigors, that it is of the
eleventh century, and the material red marble. From its massive
simplicity, and the absence of decoration, it may with certainty be
referred to that date, if indeed it be not of an earlier age. The same
writer states that similar chairs exist in the cathedrals of Lyons and
Vienne. Such chairs were also frequent in English cathedrals of an
early date. The second sketch in the preceding page is from Carter's
large work, Plate 32. It is from the chapter-house of Durham
Cathedral, and was sketched by Carter previous to the demolition of
that portion of the sacred edi^ce. He calls it the bishop's chair of
installation.
At Plate 45 of the same work we have the following sketch of a
stone chair from Beverley Minster. Carter states that it is the Frid-
stool granted by King Athelstan to John de Beverly, Archbishop of
York.
Carter gives no authority for this statement, nor am I aware at
present of any existing. This is certain, however, that the chair is
one of considerable antiquity, from its simple and archaic character.
An interesting stone chair exists in the ancient cathedral of St.
Canice, Kilkenny. It is traditionally known as the chair of St.
Canice, but it is evidently a work of the thirteenth century, and
was probably the bishop's seat in the ancient chapter-house. It
On Holed Stones. 43
is now erected in the north transept, having evidently been removed
thither from its original position. The seat is built of blocks of dark
limestone.
At the church of the Coptic convent of Alexandria, Pococke saw
the celebrated patriarchal chair of St. Mark — at least tradition has
for ages past assigned it to the venerated founder of the first
Christian Church in Egypt. He gives an engraving of this interest-
ing relic in a " Description of the East,*' 3 vols., foL, London, 1733,
vol. L, p. 7. [See Note 3.]
R. R. Brash, M.R.I.A.
On Holed Stones.
[1864, Part IL, pp. 686-700.]
It is admitted by all studious monumental archaeologists, that one of
the earliest and most widely diffused forms of superstition has been
the reverence and worship paid to stones. The existence of mega-
lithic monuments of the same class in almost^ every country of our
globe, the traditionary reverence paid to such, and the similarity of
the superstitions in connection with them, are strong presumptive evi-
dence that at an early period of the history of the human family such
a cultus prevailed, and was carried by early migrations from the original
seats of the progenitors of our race into almost every land. In
Europe, Asia, Africa, and America, are found the stone circle, the
cromlech, the pillar-stone, the rocking-stone, the holed stone ; and
though ages have passed away since these monuments were raised,
the superstitions of races long extinct have been handed down from
generation to generation, and still linger tenaciously round these hoary
relics. Of this class of objects I have singled out the holed stone as
the subject of the present paper, and have endeavoured to collect to-
gether all that is known respecting it The holed stone is usually
found in the form of a monolith, having a circular orifice varying in
dimensions from 2 to 18 inches : the position of the orifice varies also ;
sometimes it is found in the centre of the stone, sometimes on the
extreme edge. The holed stone is also found in connection with
cromlechs, it being generally, when so found, one of the supporters.
Examples of such are found in Ireland, Brittany, Circassia, India.
Whether such examples were originally pillar-stones, subsequently
used as a material in forming the cromlech, or whether there was any
special object in such an arrangement, we have no means of
ascertaining.
I shall now proceed to give a list of these monuments, and of the
localities in which they are found.
Ireland.
On the townland of Ballyveruish, about one mile from the village
of Doagh, parish of Kilbride and County of Antrim, stands a large
44 Stones and Stone Circles.
slab of whinstone : it is 5 feet high above ground, 2 feet '6 inches wide
at the base, and about 10 inches in thickness ; the orifice is about
3 feet from the ground, is 2^ inches in diameter, and equidistant
from the edges; there is no tradition in the neighbourhood con-
cerning it — (" Dublin Penny Journal," 1832-3, p. 343.)
Two miles south of Tullow, in the parish of Aghade and County
of Carlow, is a remarkable holed stone ; it is called Cloch-a-Phoill^
literally, in Irish, the "hole stone." Kyan, in his "Hbtory and
Antiquities of the County of Carlow," Dublin, 1833, thus describes
it: —
"It is about 12 feet in height, and 4 feet in breadth, having an
aperture through near the top. There is a tradition that the son of
an Irish king was chained to this stone, but that he contrived to
break his chain and escape. This tradition coincides exacdy with
our historical notice (p. 19) The stone is now thrown from
its perpendicular ; and it was a practice with the peasantry to pass
ill-thriven infants through the aperture, in order to improve their
constitution. Great numbers formerly indulged in this superstitious
folly, but for the last twenty years this practice has been discontinued.
My informant on this occasion was a woman who had herself passed
one of her infants through the aperture of this singular stone.'' —
(P. 338.)
The personage alluded to by Ryan as having been chained to this
stone was Eochaidh, the son of Enna Cinselach, who was king of
Leinster in the fifth century. The original legend is found in the
Book of Ballymote, a vellum MS. of the fourteenth century, pre-
served in the library of the Royal Irish Academy, Dublin.
A translation of it from the pen of the late Dr. John O'Donovan
appeared in the " Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy," vol. v.,
P* 357* '^hc translation is a literal one, as follows :
" Eochaidh, the son of Enna, king of Leinster [having been for
some time at Tara, as an hostage from his father to Niall of the Nine
Hostages, monarch of all Erinn], absconded and repaired to the south
to his own country. He decided on visiting the house of NialPs poet-
laureate, Laidginn, the son of Barcead, to refresh himself, but on
arriving there he was refused entertainment. He proceeded home
then, but soon returned with some followers to the poet's home, burned
it, and killed his only son In the meantime the poet so worked
up the feelings of the monarch Niall, that he vowed to march with
his army into Leinster and lay it waste, unless the young prince
Eochaidh was delivered up to him again, to be dealt with as he
should think fit, in expiation of the double insult and violation which
had been offered to the sacred persons of himself and his poet, l^his
vow he immediately carried into effect, and the king of Leinster, being
unable to offer any eflTectual resistance, was compelled to deliver up
his son as he was commaaded. The young prince was conveyed to
On Holed Stones, 45
Niall's camp, at Ath Fadat (now Ahade), on the river Slaney (about
three miles below Tullow), where he was left with an iron chain round
his neck, and the end of the chain passed through a hole in a large
upright stone, and fastened on the other side. Shortly after, there
came to him nine champions of Niall's soldiers, for the purpose of
killing him. ' This is bad, indeed,' (said he) at the same time giving
a sudden jerk, by which he broke the chain. He then took up the
iron bar which passed through the chain at the other side of the
stone, and faced the nine men, and so well did he ply the iron bar
against them, that he killed them all. The Leinstermen, who were
in large numbers in the neighbourhood, finding their prince at liberty,
by his own valour, rushed in, led by him, upon their enemies, and a
great battle ensued, in which the monarch (Niall) was routed, and
forced to retreat to Tulla, and ultimately out of Leinster."
A singular verification of the truth of our historical legends is found
in this instance, as was tested by the late Dr. Eugene O'Curry, who in
the year 1841 visited this locality with a copy of the story in his
hand, for the purpose of ascertaining if the topography afforded any
confirmatory evidence of the circumstances alluded to above. The
result will be found in the same volume, p. 359, as follows :
" Not having then seen Ryan's * History of the County Carlow,'
he was quite unaware of the existence at the present time of the
Hole-stone, mentioned by that writer. However, in moving along
the road which runs parallel with the river from Tulla to Ahade, and
when near to the latter place, he espied the identical flag-stone lying
at the north end of a small field of wheat, close to the left-hand side
of the road, with a large lime-kiln nearly opposite, on the other .side
of the road Having thus unexpectedy come upon the neighbour-
hood of the site of the field of battle, he proceeded a short distance
forwards, to where some men were at work, at the (left-hand) side of
the road, trenching up a small field to a great depth, to get rubble
limestone for burning, with which the soil seemed to abound. This
appearing to him a fortunate circumstance, he turned into the field,
and inquired of the men if they had discovered anything remarkable
in their excavations. They answered immediately that they had
found the field full of small graves, at a depth of from 18 to 30
inches below the surface, and they showed him some which had not
been yet closed up. The graves were formed generally of six flag-
stones — one sometimes at the . bottom, four at the sides and ends,
and one, sometimes more, to cover them in. They were from 3 to
4 feet long, \\ feet broad, and about 3 feet deep. Every grave con-
tained one, two, or more urns, bottom down, covered with small flags,
and contained minute fragments of burnt bones and black ashes or
mould."
In the grave-yard of the old church of Kilquane, near Mallow,
County Cork, is another of these monuments, as represented by
46 Stones and Stone Circles.
the following sketch from a drawing by Mr. John Windele, of
Cork.
It is a dallan^ or pillar-stone, 6 feet high above ground, and 2 feet
4 inches wide \ the orifice is 4 inches in diameter ; it is of a dark,
reddish sandstone, and is called by the natives Cloch-na-Pecaibh \
the peasants state that women used to draw clothes through the hole.
It is marked on the Ordnance Map '* the Sinner's Stone," which is a
pretty correct translation of the above Irish name.
In the same neighbourhood, in the townland of I^cken-darragh,
and parish of Kilcoleman, stands another holed stone, represented in
the accompanying sketch from a drawing by Mr. Windele.
The stone is 4 feet 5 inches high, 3 feet 3 inches broad, and i foot
thick. The orifice is not more than i^ inches in diameter ; it stands
near an ancient calluragh^ or unconsecrated burial-ground.
A short distance from the west end of the church of Kilmalkedar,
County Kerry, stands a pillar-stone, 4 feet 6 inches in height, 8 inches
broad, and 8 inches thick ; it is a holed stone, and bears a fine
Ogham inscription. Some zealous soul has endeavoured to sanctify
its doubly pagan character by scratching a rude cross on its face.
In the churchyard of Castledermot, County Carlow, stands a holed
stone, being a rude granite slab; it is engraved in the ''Dublin
Penny Journal," vol. i., p. 341. There are no traditions existing
among the peasantry respecting it.
About one mile from Ballyferriter, on the road to Dingle, and in
the same county, is another of these monuments \ it stands in a
calluraghy is 5 feet in height, the orifice about 2 inches in diameter,
and is close to the top of the stone at the left-hand side. This
evidently pagan monument has been Christianized by having a
Greek cross in a circle, and other ornaments^ depicted thereon in very
low relief
About two-and-a-half miles west of Dingle, and on the townland of
Ballymoreagh, is a fine Ogham monument, which was a holed stone ;
the aperture, being on the edge of a fragment, was broken away,
leaving about half of the hole. It stands close to a dochan (primi-
tive stone-roofed dwelling) : near it is also a holy well called Tubber
Monachan, to which is attached the pagan legend of a sacred fish,
here designated a trout
The island of Inniscalthra, also called Holy Island, is situated in
Lough Derg, an enlargement of the Shannon above Killaloe ; on this
sacred spot is a fine round-tower, several churches, and leabhas or
beds (burial-vaults). In the principal church, Teampuil Camin, which
is at present used for interments, stands a hole-stone, about 3 feet
6 inches high, and 15 inches wide; it is perforated in the centre of
the upper part by a small hole. The top of the Stone has been
broken off, and a rude attempt at a cross has been scratched round
the aperture. Outside of the church is a rough block of stone, with
On Holed Stones, 47
a bowl-shaped cavity artificially formed — ^what Borlase would call a
rock-basin.
At Moytura, in the County Sligo, are some remarkable megalithic
monuments, consisting of stone circles, pillar-stones, cromlechs, giants'
graves ; this locality was the scene of a great battle between the
Fir-bolgs and Tuath-de-Danans, which is celebrated in Bardic history
as deciding the sovereignty of the island in favour of the latter. One
of these giant's graves is a remarkable monument, over 40 feet in
length, and 7 feet in width ; the sides are formed of large slabs of
stone, partly sunk in the ground, and covered by other slabs ; the
chamber is divided into three compartments in its length. It lies
north and south. One stone closes the south end, which is per-
forated in the centre by a circular orifice ; the north end has two
stones, one of which is perorated in the same manner ; the holes
are about 5 inches in diameter.
I have already stated that cromlechs, with holed stones used
in their construction, have been also found in other and far
distant localities. In confirmation thereof, I give a sketch of such
a monument from Bell's ^* Residence in Circassia," London, 1840,
p. 154-
Bell states that this tomb is about 5 feet high, composed of five enor-
mous slabs of stone, four supporters, and one covering-stone, which
last, he says, is 9 feet long and 6 feet broad ; in the front slab is a cir-
cular aperture sufficiently large for the admission of a child's head
He states that there are several others scattered through the country,
but that tradition is silent concerning them. A very remarkable
example of a similar arrangement is found in a huge sepulchral
chamber, or cromlech, on the small islet of Innis-Gafr, in the Mor-
bihan, a few miles from Locmariaker, Brittany. The cistvaen is still
protected by its tumulus, but access can be had to its interior. The
side stones of this chamber are covered with rude but elaborate
carvings of spirals, circles, and serpentine figures, somewhat of a
similar character to those found at New Grange, Dowth, etc. One
of the supporting stones on the left-hand side of the cistvaen as you
enter is pierced by three circular apertures^ in a horizontal line, about
4 feet 6 inches from the ground, and about 5 inches in diameter ; at
the other side of this slab lies another chamber. — (" Archaeologia
Cambrensis," 1862, p. 334.)
Cornwall.
Cornwall is, par excellence^ the country of megalithic monuments.
Here are to be found every variety of these structures in profiision \
the remoteness of the district, and the primitive character of the
people, doubtless contributed to their preservation ; though we know
that here, as in other places, vast numbers of them have been
48 Stones and Stone Circles.
destroyed wherever they interfered with the convenience or interest
of the occupier of the soil
Borlase describes two classes of monuments in this county, which
he designates Tolmeny which in the Cornish language signifies '* hole
stone." The first class he describes as large masses of stone, or
boulders, poised upon two supporters, leaving a small space under-
neath sufficiently large for a man to creep through, and which he
argues was an ordeal of purification used by the Celtic priesthood for
their neophytes.
This notion of regeneration, or the new birth, by passing through
an artificial orifice, is prevalent among the Hindoos, as we shall
show by-and-by. Tolmens of this class are found in Ireland ; one
lies on the strand of Ardmore Bay, County Waterford, which now is
called Cloch Deglain, after one of the earliest of our Irish saints,
whose church and leabha are at Ardmore. This stone is an object
of the greatest reverence and superstitioa Women creep under it
to insure a safe delivery ; delicate children are made to pass through
it ; men labouring under rheumatic pains have been brought from
a distance of seventy or eighty miles to test its curative powers ; in
fact, there is scarcely any ill that flesh is heir to but that Cloch De-
glain is considered a specific for it Up to the present time the faith
of the peasantry of the surrounding country is unbounded in its
miraculous powers. The other class of holed stones described by
Borlase is tfiat which I have been endeavouring to illustrate. He
gives an illustration of one at Lanyon, in the parish of Madron,
Cornwall, which he describes as being one of three stones, standing
erect, and forming a triangle on plan. It is a large flat slab about
5 feet by 4 feet above ground, having a circular aperture 16 inches
in diameter. He says Siat —
'^ A very intelligent farmer of the neighbourhood assured me that
he had known many persons who had crept through this holed stone
for pains in their backs, and limbs, and that fismciful parents at certain
times of the year do customarily draw their young children through,
in order to cure them of the rickets. He showed me also two pins
carefully laid across each other on the top edge of the holed stone.
This is the way with the over-curious even at this time, and by
recurring to these pins, and observing their direction to be the same
or different from what they left them in, or by their being lost or gone,
they are informed of, and resolve upon, some material incident of
love or fortune." — (Borlase's "Cornwall," Oxford, 1754, foL, p. 169.)
He describes another holed stone, standing at Rosmodreuy Circle
in Buryan, as being 5 feet high, 2 feet 6 inches wide, and 6 inches
thick, with a circular aperture, 6 inches in diameter, and about 15
inches from the top. — {Jbid,^ p. 169.) He gives drawings of both
these stones.
Mr. J. T. Blight, in a paper read before the Royal Institution of
On Holed Stones. 49
Cornwall, May 23, 1862, describes an interesting example, which he
states to be the largest holed stone in that county. It is situated at
Tolven Cross, in the parish of Constantine, and about two miles
from the church ; it is doubtless the one referred to by Borlase in a
foot-note at page 169.
This monument is of a triangular form, 8 feet 1 1 inches wide at
the base, 8 feet 6 inches high to the apeic, and about 12 inches
average thickness. The orifice is 17 inches in diameter. Mr. Blight
says: —
" A few years ago a person digging close to the Tolven discovered
a pit in which were fragments of pottery arranged in a circular order,
the whole being covered by a flat slab of stone. Imagining that he
had disturbed some mysterious place, with commendable reverence
he immediately filled up the pit again. Taking the proximity of the
barrow in connection with the pit, it seems most probable that the
Tolven is a sepulchral monument, stones of this kind being erected,
perhaps, to a peculiar class of personages. It is well known that the
circle is an ancient symbol of eternity, and it was sometimes adopted
as typical of Deity itself. I'he triangular form of the stone may be
accidental The holed stones at Madron also formed part of a
triangular arrangement Whether a significant connection was in-
tended in this union of the circle and triangle is perhaps worthy of
consideration."
At Cam Kenidjack, near St. Just's, Land's End, are four holed
stones, and two others at Bolleit, close by the Celtic monument of
Dawns Myin, near St Buryan's.
Near Madron is the curious monument called MSn-an-tol, i>., the
stone with a hole through it Mr. Blight thus describes it : —
" It stands between two others at the distance of 7 feet 10 inches
from one and 7 feet 8 inches from the other. A few yards north-
west of the westernmost stone are two others, one fallen, the other
upright ; and it seems probable that these are the only remaining
stones of a circle. The holed stone is 3 feet 6 inches high by 4 feet
3 inches in breadth at base. The hole measures in diameter on one
side 2 feet 2 inches, on the other i foot 7 inches. One side may
have been bevelled for some particular purpose, or perhaps is the result
of the hole having been made with a rude instrument worked only on
one side of the stone. The hole of the Tolven in the parish of
St. Constantine is bevelled in like manner. Superstitious practices
have been observed at these stones in modern times. Dr. Borlase
has referred to such customs. Children were passed through the
M6n-an-tol as a cure for spinal diseases.''
Scotland.
Martin, in his "Western Islands of Scotland" (London, 1716,
p. 391), states that the inhabitants of these islands were accustomed
VOL. VI. 4
50 Stones and Stone Circles.
to pour out libations of milk, beer, etc, through a koled stone^ to pro-
pitiate a demon named " Browney," who was supposed to preside
over the making of butter, brewing of beer, etc. The holed stone,
however, is not uncommon in Scotland. Barry, in his Account of
the Orkney Isle$, describing the stone circle at Stennis, states that —
'' Near the circle there are standing stones that seem to be placed
in no regular order that we can now discern ; and as near the semi-
circle are others of the same description. In one of the latter is a
round hole, not in the middle, but towards one of the edges^ much
worn as if by the friction of a chain by which some animal had been
bound."
Barry goes on to argue that the circle at Stennis was a law^ or
place of convention, of the States of Orkney for judicial and religious
purposes ; and he states that : —
"Before any civil business commenced in these conventions,
sacrifices would be performed, and the perforated stone that stands
near the semicircle might have served for fastening the victim
At Applecross, in the west of Ross-shire, are standing stones similar
to these, some of which are formed into a circle, and others into a
triangle^ with one in the midst of them perforated in the same
manner. Very near them also are tumuli, or mounds of earth, such
as those mentioned near the stones of Stennis. Another circle, com-
posed of stones of the same nature and in the same circumstances,
stands in a moor near Beauly, in Inverness-shire." — (" History of the
Orkney Islands," 4to., Edinburgh, 1805, p. 209.)
Mr. Daniel Wilson, in his " Pre-historic Annals of Scotland," refers
to this stone, traditionally known as the stone of Odin — ^and states
that compacts and engagements were made while hands were joined
through the orifice. He writes : " The solemnity attached to a vow
ratified by so awful a pledge as this appeal to the ' father of the
slain,' the severe and terrible Odin, continued to maintain its influence
on the mind till a comparatively recent date." Dr. Henry, writing in
1784, refers to the custom as having fallen into disuse within twenty
or thirty years of the time he wrote : and adds, " this ceremony was
held so very sacred that the person who dared to break the engage-
ment was counted infamous, and excluded all society." Mr. Wilson
on the authority of Principal Gordon, of the Scots' College at Paris,
who visited Orkney in 1781, describes the stone of Odin as being
8 feet high, 3 feet broad, and 9 inches thick; with a round hole on
the side next the lake. — (" Archaeology and Pre-historic Annals of
Scotland," p. 99.) In conformity with traditions of similar monu-
ments elsewhere, the Orcadians devoutly believed that an infant
passed through the aperture would never shake with the palsy. Mr.
W^ilson further states that a view of this remarkable memorial of
ancient manners and superstitions is given in Lady Stafford's '* Views
in Orkney and on the North-eastern coast of Scotland," drawn in
X)n Holed Stones. 51
1805, and has been copied as one of the illustrations for the Abbots-
fold edition of *^ The Pirate." But the stone itself no longer exists.
After having survived the waste of centuries until it had nearly out-
lived the bust traditionary remembrance of the strange rites with
which it had once been associated, it was barbarously destroyed by
a neighbouring farmer in the year 18 14, along with two stones of the
adjacent semicircle. — {Ibid^ p. loi.) At Tolmore, in the parish of
Kilmorey, Buteshire, there is a celebrated monolithic circle styled
Siode choir Fhioun^ or '^ Fingal's cauldron seat,'', one of the columns
of which is perforated, and is commemorated in an old Highland
tradition as the stone to which the Celtic hero was wont to tie his
dog Bran.— (/^/](£, p. 99.)
I have before alluded to the appropriation of holed stones and
other pagan memorials in Ireland by the professors of a purer faith,
by the incising of crosses and Christian emblems on the same. We
have a remarkable instance in the accompanying sketch, either of a
combination of the virtues of the holed stone and cross, or else the
former was fashioned into the form of the latter, its extreme rude-
ness giving a countenance to the supposition. The sketch is taken
from ^ The Church Architecture of Scotland," Edinburgh, 1861, and
represents a rude stone cross found on Eilean Rona, a small islet on
the western coast of Scotland ; it is pierced at the intersection of
the shaft and arms by three holes forming a triangle. The author
states that there was some superstition connected with the holes.
The occurrence here of the triangular form is again noteworthy.
Dr. Wise, F.S.A. Scot, who resided for several years in India,
showed me several sketches of Celtic monuments existing in southern
Bengal, among which are drawings of stone circles, from the rude
monolith to the idea refined by Buddhistic symbolism \ in which a
stone circle of near 150 feet in diameter is composed of monoliths of
beautifully dressed stone, in each of which a niche, richly ornamented,
is sunk, with a miniature altar and lingam. The stones are covered
with delicate symbolical carvings, and are placed quite close together
in the circle. The centre is occupied by an altar and lingam. The
accompanying sketch exhibits a cromlech with pillar stones, one of
which is holed.
The next sketch shows a cromlech, one of the sides of which has
a circular orifice, and is of a similar class to those already described
as existing in Ireland, Brittany, and Circassia. Both of these are
from Musselbunda, near Pedda-naig, Oroog Pass, Camatic.
Mr. Squires, in his "Travels in Central America." (8vo., New
York, 1853), describes cairns and carved monoliths existing in the
island of Zapatero, Nicaragua ; one of them he describes as a figure
sitting on a stone pedestal, which latter is artificially perforated with
an oval hole, the orifice being chambered at both sides : it is palpably
4—2
52 Stones and Stone Circles.
a holed stone. (Vol. iL p. 58.) He gives an engraving of the monu-
ment
I have before alluded to the holed stone being an object of super-
stition among the Hindoos. In southern and northern India mega-
lithic monuments are found in great abundance; Hooker, in his
'^ Himalayan Journal/' describes cromlechs, cistvaens, and pillar-
stones of enormous magnitude in Sikkim : —
'* Nurtiung/' he says, " contains a most remarkable collection of
those sepulchral and other monuments, which form so curious a
feature in the scenery of these mountains, and in the habits of their
savage population. They are all placed in a fine grove of trees
occupying a hollow, where several acres are covered with gigantic,
generally circular slabs of stone, from 10 to 25 feet broad, supported
5 feet above ground upon other blocks ; for the most part they are
buried in brushwood, nettles, and shrubs, but in one place there is
an open area of 50 yards, encircled by them, each with a gigantic
head-stone behind it ; of the latter the tallest was near 30 feet high,
6 feet broad, and 2 feet 8 inches in thickness, and must have been
sunk at least 5 feet, and perhaps more, in the ground." — (P. 257.)
A very remarkable paper was read before the Royal Institution of
Cornwall, on November 16, 1858, relative to Celtic remains found in
northern India, consisting of cromlechs of various forms, rock-basins,
logan-stones, pillar-stones, cairns, sacred wells, etc.
We are not to suppose for a moment that the reverence for sacred
stones in India originated with the polished and metaphysical
Brahmin ; it is evidently, as with us, a remnant of the primeval
religion of a primeval race, who through all the changes of religious
systems and opinions clung tenaciously to traditionary customs and
reverences, and was ultimately grafted on the new faith by the crafty
priesthoods of Brahma and Buddha.
Captain Francis Wilford, in a paper on Mount Caucasus, read
before the Royal Asiatic Society, states that
" Perforated stones are not uncommon in India, and devout people
pass through them when the opening will admit of it, in order to be re-
generated. If the hole be too stnall^ they put either the hand or foot
through it, and with a sufficient degree of faith it answers nearly
the same purpose."
The passing through caves, holes between rocks, and holed stones,
was with these people symbolical of passing through the sacred Yoni,
being born again, regenerated. A remarkable instance of this super-
stition is given by Captain Wilford in the same paper. He states
that two Brahmins were sent by an Indian rajah on a political mission
to England, and having in their journey crossed the Indus, according
to the Hindoo faith they had contracted impurity and lost caste. The
influence of the rajah was exerted in vain on their behalf, the priest-
Oa Holed Stones. 53
hood were inexorable, a process of purification must be adopted ; an
assembly of Brahmins was held, and they decreed that
"In consequence of their universal good character, and of the
motive of their travelling to distant countries, which was solely to
promote the good of their country, they might be regenerated, and
have the sacerdotal ordination renewed. For the purpose of regene-
ration it is directed to make an image of pure gold of the female
power of nature, in the shape either of a woman or of a cow. In this
statue the person to be regenerated is enclosed, and dragged out
through the usual channel. As a statue of pure gold and of proper
dimensions would be too exp)ensive, it is sufficient to make an image
of the sacred Yoni, through which the person to be regenerated is
to pass. Rayhu-Nath'Raya had one made of pure gold and of proper
dimensions ; his ambassadors were regenerated, and the usual cere-
monies of ordination having been performed, and immense presents
bestowed on the Brahmins, they were re-admitted into the communion
of the faithful." — ("Asiatic Researches," 410., London, 1801, vol. vl,
PP- S02-53.S)
This superstition of the efficacy of '' passing through " is prevalent
among the Turk& I have been informed that it is a custom often
observed by Turkish sailors when overtaken by a storm. They kill
a goat, or sheep, and having divided the carcase fairly in halves, they
cast one at each side of the ship into the sea. Their vessel having
thus performed this symbolic passing through, they expect will be
fortunate in escaping the disasters of the ocean. The Turks, the
Jews, and most of the people bordering on the Black Sea, retain the
superstition of the evil eye ; one of their principal talismans to avert
its influence is, to pass the forefinger of the right hand through the
circle made by the forefinger and thumb of the left
It is singular that no monument of this class is known to exist in
Wales ; I have written to several antiquaries in the Principality, and
all have declared their ignorance of any such.
With respect to England, the only instance of a holed stone which
I have been able to verify as existing in that country, I find described
in the " Archaeologia," vol. viii., p. 209, where a collection of monu-
ments, supposed to be Druidic, is described by Mr. Rooke as the
" Brinham Rocks in Yorkshire ;'' one of these, the side slab of a
cromlech, he describes as being pierced in the centre by a circular
orifice ; he gives an illustration of the monument
I think a few inferences may be drawn from the facts already
stated. First that the superstition of the holed stone seems peculiar
to the " Goadhal " or Irish Celts, as the examples existing are almost
exclusively found in Ireland, Scotland, and Cornwall, which two latter
districts were largely colonised by the Goadhal. Secondly, that the
virtues attributed to its use are found either traditionally or in actual
existence in the countries whence I have drawn my examples, Ireland,
54 Stones and Stone Circles.
Scotland, Cornwall, India; and thos^ are, the binding nature of
contracts made through them, but more particularly the regenerative
power supposed to be communicated by passing through the orifice,
whether it be a diseased limb, or the weakly and rickety infant, or the
linen about to be used in childbirth. In India it undoubtedly was
a Phallic emblem, with a two-fold symbolism, representing in the one
monument the reciprocal principles. I am equally certain, that
among our Celtic progenitors it had a similar signification, of which
the existing myths have a faint shadowing. In Ireland ample
evidences are not wanting to show that Phallic dogmas and rites were
very extensively known and practised in ancient times. It is patent
in the existing folk-lore of the country, in some everyday customs of
the peasantry, and in the remains of midnight plays and ceremonies,
practised still in remote districts at wakes and such-like occasions.
Thirdly, Mr. Blight has before alluded to the triangular arrangement
of the stones at Madron, and to the triangular stone at Tolven Cross,
Constantine, and hints that the coincidence is worthy of consideration.
To these I would add, the triangular arrangement at Applecross,
Ross-shire, the triangular arrangement of the aperture on the cross
at Eilean Rona, and the thrice-repeated aperture on the supporting
slab of the cromlech on Gafr-Inis, Brittany.
The coincidence of the holed cromlechs in Ireland, Yorkshire,
Brittany, Circassia, and India, is certainly very remarkable, and
cannot by any possibility be accidental, but was evidently the work
of design resulting from some prevalent religious or social principle ;
what the nature of it was is now hidden, and will in all probability
be for ever hidden from us.
In conclusion, I am of opinion that there are still existing in these
countries many monuments of this class, which have hitherto escaped
the observation of explorers. If any readers of the GentlemarCs
Magazine are aware of the existence of such, their publication would
be very desirable, in order tp perfect, if possible, the meagre list con-
tained in this notice.
Richard Rolt Brash.
[1865, Pca^t /., //. 221-223.]
I have been reading with interest in your last number Mr. Brash's
notes on the " Holed Stones," but cannot agree with his deductions,
which would connect them with Eastern or Hindoo customs and
traditions. Antiquaries in studying the early and primitive periods
of countries, should take into account the state of the mind of man
at that rude period, and also the peculiar cast of mind of the nation
they are writing about Now I do not see any connection between
the Hindoo mind and the Irish. The mind of the Hindoo is
naturally given to mysticism ; the tone of his religion is mystic ; in
all ages it had a tendency to develop all religious ideas in mystic
On Holed Stones. 55
and allegorical myths. In Ireland we find no traces of this mysti-
cism ; no remnants of deep allegorical myths ; nothing but what
would be common to man, in his earliest and primitive stage of
development ; nothing but those customs and practices which are the
natural result of man's early stage of development, and which flow
from the fetichism peculiar to man in that early stage.
Antiquaries, instead of having recourse to far-fetched theories of
Phoenician or Eastern origin, would find much more satisfactory
results in studying the nature of man in the pre-historic ages, in the
earliest stages of his development Man in the earliest and rudest
stage of his development is essentially a fetichist. Many of the
customs, habits, practices discovered in remote parts of Ireland,
where men are found in a rude and uneducated state, flow from this
rude development of the religious principle in man. The worship
of stones and wells is shared in common with the African fetichist
Man in his earliest stage will act alike in all countries, as children act
and speak nearly alike in all countries, whether bom in Ireland, India,
or Peru. ' These practices and customs are not peculiar to any sepa-
rate race, but peculiar to and the ofifspring of the mind of man in his
earliest and rudest stage.
The mystic and mythical ideas found in the East are the result of
a more advanced stage of civilization, and a more refined and
thoughtful mind The idea of regeneration connected with these
stones in Ireland is far above the mind of that rude age. The
superstitious customs found in Ireland at the present day with regard
to these stones, bearing a resemblance to similar customs and
practices in India, prove nothing but the common tendency of the
mind of man in his rude and barbarous state to indulge in those
superstitious practices which are peculiar to fetichism. Dr. Wilson,
in his *' Pre-historic Man," gives a curious instance of the coincidence
of traditions proving no common origin. The stems and bowls of
pipes, which are found in several parts of England, Ireland, and Scot-
land, and which are now generally supposed to have belonged to the
soldiers of Cromwell, or the reign of Charles II., are attributed, in-
dependently and without any connection, by the peasantry of England,
Ireland, and Scotland, to the fairies.
Taking this view into account, I should prefer an explanation which
would be more consonant to the customs and traditions of the
Celtic mind In the rude and barbarous period when the worship of
pillar-stones, wells, etc. , prevailed, among other superstitious customs,
was that of lighting flres by night in several places, which was also a
kind of religious worship. Another custom also prevalent in the
rude ages was that of lighting lamps in cemeteries and in tombs, in
honour of the dead. These holes, therefore, may have been used for
placing lamps in by night, as a kind of tribute to the memory of the
dead, as these stones are generally found in connection with ancient
56 Stones and Stone Circles.
sepulchres. M. VioUet-le-Duc adopts this view, and mentions in
confinnation that even at the present day in Brittany there is a tra-
dition that these stones light up of themselves by night.
I shall mention here another instance of antiquaries being led by
these seeming coincidences to far-fetched theories.
An early style of masonry, properly called Polygonal, but more
commonly called Pelasgian, is frequently found in several parts of
Greece and Italy. The term Pelasgian has been also, but wrongly,
applied to a rude style of horizontal masonry found in Ireland In
consequence of this misapplication of terms a theory has been
founded that there was a mysterious race, known to the Greeks as
Pelasgi or Pelargi, who, coming from the ancient seat of the human
family, passed through Greece, Italy, Spain, and finally reached these
shores. The so-called Pelasgian walls are therefore considered to be
built by this mysterious race, as they passed through these countries.
Unfortunately for this theory, a similar style of masonry is found in
Peru, where the rashest antiquary will not venture to conjecture that
the Pelasgian race ever penetrated. Mr. Fergusson thus notices
these walls :
"Examples occur of every intermediate gradation between the
polygonal walls of the house of Manco Capac and the horizontal of
the Tambos, precisely corresponding with the gradual progress of art
in Latium, or any European country where the Cyclopean or Pelasgic
style of building has been found. So much so is this the case, that
a series of examples collected by Mr. Pentland from the Peruvian
remains might be engraved for a description of Italy, and Dodswell's
illustrations of those in Italy would serve equally to illustrate the
buildings of South America.'*
Mr. Fergusson, however, in a genuine philosophic spirit, instead of
indulging in the tempting field of speculation and tracing the
similarities that exist between this style and that of Egypt, Pelasgia,
or Assyria, considers it far safer to ascribe these coincidences to the
common instincts implanted by nature in all the varieties of the
human race, which lead mankind, in certain climates and at a certain
stage of civilization, to do the same thing in the same way, or nearly
so, even without any teaching or previous communication with those
who have done so before.
I shall here introduce two quotations, one from the Chevalier
Bunsen's " Philosophy of History," and the other from Dr. Todd's
" Life of St. Patrick" ; which if Irish antiquaries would " read, mark,
learn, and inwardly digest," it would save them a world of wild con-
jecture and useless theory.
" The name Fena, under which the Scots are almost invariably
mentioned in their own records — the old Irish annals and poems —
signifies *the fair ones,' being the plural of Fiofty 'fair,' which word
is in this form the name of the Aeros eponytnus of the whole tribe
On Holed Stones, 57
Fion Mac Cumhail. The ignorance of the monkish chroniclers of
Ireland, who did not understand the meaning of the word Fena^ was
doubtless the cause of the wild notion of the Phoenician origin of
the Irish being generally received, just as the story of the celebrated
hero, Milesius, as a distinct person, grew out of the ignorance of those
chroniclers as to the true meaning of an epithet by which Fion (the
heros eponymus of the Fena) is frequently described by the old Irish
bards, namely, the epithet Miledh^ * the warrior.' *' — Bunsen, " Philo-
sophy of History," voL i., p. 151.
" Beltine. — This word is supposed to signify * lucky' fire, or the
fire of the god Bel or Baal. The former signiucation is possible ; the
Celtic Bil^ is good, or lucky, and tine *fire.* The other etymology,
although more generally received, is untenable. The Irish pagans
worshipped the heavenly bodies, hills, pillar-stones, wells, etc. There
is no evidence of their having had any personal gods, or any know-
ledge of the Phoenician Baal. This very erroneous etymology of the
word Beltine is nevertheless the source of all the theories about the
Irish Baal-worship."— Dr. Todd, "Life of St. Patrick," p. 414.
I am, etc Hodder M. Westropp.
\\%f>l. Part L, pp. 353, 354.]
Mr. Westropp, in your February number, seems to incline to the
theory that " holed stones," such as those described by Mr. Brash,*
^ may have been used for placing lamps in by night, as a kind of
tribute to the memory of the dead" As most of these monuments
are found in an upright position, it is difficult to imagine how they
could have been used for this purpose. There are several of these
stones in Cornwall (eleven of which are figured in a recent number
of the " Archseologia Cambrensis "), differing much in size and form.
The largest, the Tolven, in the parish of S. Constantine, measures
8 feet 6 inches in height, and 8 feet 1 1 inches in breadth at the base,
whence it diminishes to a point at the summit The hole, 2 feet
7 inches from the ground, is 1 7 inches in diameter. The M^n-an-tol,t
though not so large a stone as the Tolven, has a hole 26 inches in
diameter on one side, 19 inches on the other. The bevel or splay
may probably have been caused by the stone being worked on one
side only by a rude instrument Both these stones stand erect The
latter has evidently never been moved since first placed as it is now
seen ; and the Tolven, though it was some years ago in a reclining
position, has been restored to its perpendicular state.
The other holed stones in Cornwall which have come under my
notice have holes just sufficiently large to pass one's arm through ;
and, as many of these have been removed from their original sites,
* GentUmatCs Mageuine, Dec., 1864, p. 686 [(mte, pp. 43-54]*
t Ibid,, April, 1864, p. 445 [see anie, p. 49, and Dote 4].
w«««i
58 Stones and Stone Circles.
there is now no evidence as to their former exact position, though
from their formation the greater number apparently stood erect
There is, however, certainly one exception, the cap-stone of the
great cromlech at Trevethy, near Liskeard. This is pierced by a hole
6 inches in diameter; and if we believe that it was made for the
reception of a lamp, we must, of course, at the same time reject the
theory that all cromlechs were buried under mounds of earth.
In the case of the upright stones, it may be suggested that the
lamps rested on what may be termed the sills of the holes ; but the
larger examples are too acutely bevelled to admit of this.
That these curious monuments had some sepulchral use appears
highly probable, from the fact of their being., found near barrows,
stone circles, and cromlechs.
The superstitious practices connected with the Co.rnish holed
stones have abready been noticed in the pages of the Gentleman's
Magazine.
I am, etc J. T. Blight.
Cornwall.
[1807, Part II., p. 717.]
In Peacock's "Compendious Geographical Dictionary" is the
following article : —
" Cleer, St., a parish of Cornwall, remarkable for a piece of anti-
quity called the other Half Stone ; which indeed are two stones fixed
in the ground, and by mortises in each seem to have been formerly
joined together. On both are curious diaper-work carvings, with
the following inscription upon one of them, in very antique char-
acters: 'Doniert rogavit pro anima.' This Doniert, or Dungarth,
King of Cornwall, was drowned about a.d. 182."
Allow me to enquire of any correspondent who may know any-
thing of this place, whether these stones with the inscription are still
to be seen, which (if it be the case) is certainly a great piece of
antiquity, and some public form of the same (I think) ought to be
preserved.
Yours, etc D. D. S.
[1767,//. 358» 359.]
While many of our countrymen are running over Italy and the
East in search of antiquities and natural curiosities, I am amusing
myself with viewing every thing worth attention in our own island.
I often think, that while Britain was subject to the Romans, its
native inhabitants were to that people, nearly what the Indians of
America are at this day to us ; for the arts had flourished a long time
in Rome before they were either known or cultivated by our ancestors.
Hence it is that Italy affords a more copious field of entertainment to
the learned and the curious ; nevertheless, I think I may venture to
On Holed Stones. 59
allege that we have at home some monuments, as ancient at least,
though not so superb and elegant, as any to be found in the neigh-
bouring nations.
There is in this parish [St Clere, Cornwall] an amazing groupof
stones, called the " Wringcheese," of which I have sent you a drawing.
The whole pile is 32 feet in height ; the upper stone, B, was a logan, or
rocking-stone, and might, when entire, be easily moved with a pole ;
upon the top of it were two regular basons, one of which has been
broken, as may be seen at A. The vast weight of the upper part from
A to C, and its small contact with the lower part, at D E, makes every
one wonder how such an amazing heap of stone should have sustained
itself for so many ages, and in a situation so exposed. The ingenious
and learned Mr. Borlase imagines that it is not an artificial building
of flat stones, laid carefully one upon another by human labour ; but
rather supposes it to be a natural cragg, and that what stones sur-
rounded it and hid its grandeur, were removed by the Druids. From
the great elevation of the groupe, from the just equilibrium of the
upper part, from the top-stone being a rocking-stone, and from its
having rock-basons engraven upon it, he makes no scruple to rank it
among the rock-deities; and suggests that its tallness and exact
balance might probably be intended to express the majesty and justice
of the Divine Being. R. N.
[1807, Part //., /. 1023.]
There is in this parish [St Clere] a cromlech in good preservation,
called ^^ The Frethevy-stone*^; it consists of several upright stones,
and a large one for a roof or cover to the building.*
The well-known large pile of stones called the Cheese-wrings though
a natural production, and not properly to be classed amongst antiqui-
ties, must not be here passed over. It stands on a hill, where there
are an immense number of stones, and several other piles of stones
not very unlike this, but not quite so conspicuous. The rock-basons^
which are to be seen on a stone to the north of this pile (and said
also to be on this), if artificially cut, make these stones antiquarian
curiosities. The height of the Cheese-wring (or Wring-cheese) has
been greatly exaggerated by writers ; the real height, if accurately
taken, would not, it is believed, measure more than about 17 or 18
feet Borlase calls it 32 feet high.t
British Works near Bittaford Bridge, Devon.
[1831, Part IL, pp, 301, 302.]
Among the numerous memorials of the various conflicts between
our British and Saxon progenitors, which adorn the County of Devon,
* Norden, p. 88, with a figure ; Stukeley's ** Avebury," pi 37, 2nd figure ; no
doubt this.
t Borlase, p. 173, pi. 12, fig. i ; Gough, pp. 5-7 ; Norden, p. 91, with a
figure ; Ray, p. 289 ; Carew, fol. 129.
6o Stones and Stone Circles.
none exceeds that on the moor between the village of Bittaford Bridge
and Harford Church, in the hundred of Ermington, either in extent or
interest The village of Bittaford Bridge, consisting of a few scattered
cottages with a small inn, is situated in a little dell facing the south,
13 miles from Plymouth, at the junction of the Totnes andExeter roads.
Harford Church'^- is distant from it 2 miles to the northward.
This hoary monument of the valour of our ancestors commences
within a quarter of a mile of the above village. The first thing that
attracts the attention are several large stones surrounded by an
earthen circle many yards in circumference, and a few inches above
the surface of the ground ; these are in the north-western comer of
a field on the right-hand side of the road, near a rivulet ; two of
them are erect, the others are lying half buried in the soil. The
highest is about 5 feet in height, and 3 wide at the broadest part ;
the other, which is closely connected with it, is 4 feet high and 3 broad
at the top, but gradually increases in breadth towards the ground,
and at length terminates in a point ; neither of them is more than a
foot in thickness. This doubtlessly covers the remains of some chieftain.
Further on are a range of barrows, running nearly in a direct line
across the moor, south-west and north-east, when they ascend a hill,
on the summit of which are three, giving name to it, " Three-barrow
Tor." They are composed of stones of all sizes and weights, from a
few ounces to as many pounds, varying from 60 to 80 paces round at
the base; and from 6 to 8 feet high, and distant from each other
about 200 yards. They are all more or less injured, from the great
quantities of stone constantly taken from them by the neighbouring
farmers for the purpose of making fences, etc There are likewise
several small circular buildings of rough stones, rudely put together
without any kind of cement, standing on low mounds of earth. The
wall of the one I examined was 4 feet high on the outside, and
37 paces in circumference ; but on the inside, from the soil that
partly filled it, it was not more than 20 paces round, and 2 feet high :
the hillock on which it stood was about a yard in height, and 66 paces
round at the base.
Near the northern extremity of the same common is a pile of rocks,
perpendicular on the north side, but on the south of rather easy
ascent, surrounded by an immense slab, somewhat oblong in form ;
near the southern margin of which is an irregular shallow rock-bason,
* This church stands on the east bank of the romantic little river Erme, which
is here crossed by an ancient bridge, and is a prominent feature in the landscape.
It consists of a nave, chancel, and south aisle, with a neat tower at the west end.
The interior cannot boast of much beauty, the windows being entirely stripped of
their fretwork, and the only monument a plain tablet on the north wall. The
churchyard is pretty, and contains an ancient tomb or two. Yet, however interest-
ing Harford Church may l)e to the tourist from its picturesque situation and the
grandeur of the surrounding scenery, it has but little to recommend it to the
antiquary.
Account of a Stone Circle at GorwelL 6i
with a channel leading to the edge of the rock : whether this excava-
tion be of Druidical origin or not, I must leave to those who are
better able to determine ; although I consider it as likely to have
been employed in the mystic rites of the hierarchy of ancient Britain,
as any of those attributed to that sacred body by fiorlase.
Yours, etc., Joseph Chattaway.
Account of a Druidical Temple at Gorwell, Dorset.
[1815, Part /., pp, 40I-404.]
The following account of Druidical remains in Dorsetshire {see
PL II.) was onginally drawn up by the late Rev. James Knight
Moor, for the pages of your useful miscellany. It having been
previously printed in the new edition of the History of Dorsetshire
(from the necessary confined circulation of that work), will perhaps
be no objection to your inserting it B. N.
'* The County of Dorset has been long celebrated for its Roman
and Saxon antiquities; and its military roads, stations, and monastic
remains have been again and again explored and described. It has
also considerable claim to the notice of the antiquary, on account of
the traces it contains of our British ancestors. The Downs have
certainly been the scene of the mysterious rites of the Druids, and,
perhaps, of their last struggle with the Romans in this part of Britaia
Besides the two small temples and other Druidical relics described
by Mr. Hutchins, near Winterboume Abbas, the remains of a similar
temple and cromlech have been lately noticed in the same neighbour-
hood by the gentlemen who have been appointed by the Board of
Ordnance to survey, and make a map of the county. They are
situated upon a level plain, on the summit of the lofty eminence
between Kingston Russel and Gorwell, having the deep i^e watered
by the River Bride to the north and north-west, and Gorwell Farm,
in the parish of Litton, in the vale to the south. The Roman camp
at Abbotsbury is upon the opposite hill to the south, and completely
overlooks the whole plain, die deep valley beneath it, and the sur-
rounding country to the west and north-west, as fieur as Eggardon
Camp.
The site of the Druidical circle or temple is only a few yards from
the south-eastern extremity of Kingston Farm, and immediately above
Gorwell House. This farm or hamlet appears to take its name from
the fine piece of water which runs at the foot of the hill near the
house, and glides through a deep sequestered valley (whose almost
precipitous sides are still mantled with woods), till it falls into the
Bride.* Thb temple, though little now remains except the mere
* May not the spring which gives name to the vale south of the temple derive
its name from the bloody sacrifices of the Druids, or some unrecorded cruelties of
the successful enemies ? and its sister stream, the Bride, or Brede, from the same
word which has given name to the whole island ?
62 Siones and Stone Circles.
bases of the upright stones, was of greater extent than any hitherto
noticed in the county. One stone only, and that in a very mutilated
state, is at present standing ; the rest have been all thrown down,
evidently with design, and broken to pieces. The fragments which
remain form a circle of between 70 and 80 feet diameter, and appear
nearly as represented in the plate. There are no traces of an exterior
circle. Two or three large stones, which lie at a little distance, have
evidently rolled to their present situation since the destruction of the
temple. The entrance was probably on the east side, and (if a con-
jecture may be made after the lapse of so many ages, from Uie stones
which still lie upon the ground partly covered with turf), we may sup-
pose that it was formed by two uprights and an impost The stones
consist of very close and solid masses of conglutinated flints, of the
same nature and texture with the craggs which project from the side
of the hills above the town of Abbotsbury. The dimensions as given
below, being merely taken with a riding-stick, cannot be perfectly
accurate, but are sufficiently so for a general description : —
A I. An upright stone, 5 feet high, about a thick.
A 2. A smaller stone, 4 feet long, \\ feet thick, lying by the
former, from the top of which it was probably broken off.
B I. B 2. B 3. Three stones thrown down, and partly buried in
the ground. — B i. about 8 feet long and 3 broad in the widest part
— B 2. 4 J feet by 3 feet ; they are about i J feet above ground. — B 3
is nearly covered by the tur£ — These are probably fragments of the
same upright.
C, about I foot above ground ; 4^ feet by 3^ feet of the sur&ce of
the stone appear above ground.
D,- about I foot above ground ; surface 4^ feet by 3^.
E, about i^ feet above ground ; t\ feet long, 3 feet broad.
F, about 5 feet long, 4 broad, nearly buried.
G, but little above the tur£ This is probably only a fragment
broken from F or H.
H, i\ feet long, 2^ feet broad
K, large fragments, partly covered with turf. Probably the
entrance.
L. L. L, fragments partly buried.
Upon the same plain, nearly opposite to what we may suppose to
have been the entrance of the temple, and only a short distance from
it, are several other large rude stones, which appear to be the remains
of a cromlech, or kistvaen. From their situation we may reasonably
conjecture that they were originally an appendage to the temple ; and
perhaps an altar upon which the Druids consumed their bloody and
inhuman sacrifices. These stones, which are known by the name of
"The Grey Mare and Her Colts,'* are upon an oblong barrow in a
field near Gorwell farm-; and command a fine view of Abbotsbury
encampment to the west, and beyond that of the sea and the bold
Accmmt of a Stone Circle at GorwelL 63
cliffs on the coast of Dorset and Devon as far as the eye can reach.
The view of the sea to the east and the south is intercepted by Black-
down and Abbotsbury hills. The cromlech is distant from the
Dniidical Circle about a quarter of a mile, and perhaps formed the
tennination of an avenue leading to the east entrance of the temple.
A, 6, C, D. Stones which formed the east end of an oblong bar-
row. — A, B, are still standing, about 7 feet high, 6 broad, and ij
thick. — D, is about the same dimensions, but has been thrown down.
— C appears to have been the base of another stone, which stood in
the same line, or of the one now lying upon the ground.
£, a stone about 2 feet high, a little west of the former, probably
one of the supporters of the lower side of the impost
F, a large stone lying upon the barrow, probably a part of the flat
stone which formed the top of the cromlech, of an irregular shape,
and appears to have been designedly broken to pieces.
G, an oblong barrow, which rises with a gradual ascent from west
to east, so as to form an easy ascent to the summit of the cromlech.
A hedge passes over the lowest or west end of the barrow, which is
overgrown with thorns. These stones, like those in the Druidical
Circle near it, consist of flints conglutinated with a kind of stone of
very hard and close texture. They appear as if they had been origin-
ally chipped into form for the purpose they might be designed for,
with a mason's hammer ; but are of too hard a nature to have been
wrought with an edged tool.
The peculiar fitness of the situation for the purposes of Druidical
worship and superstition ; the extensive horizon, and elevated plain
(for astronomical observations), surrounded by deep and almost im-
pervious valleys abounding with their favourite oak, may lead us to
suppose that this place was of considerable note among the Druids ;
though it might not, like Stonehenge, or Avebury, be metropolitan,
or of the first rank. The number of barrows (undoubtedly the work
of a settled people) dispersed on all sides over the surrounding
downs, and the strong Roman camps in the neighbourhood, tend to
strengthen this conjecture. The barrows are now well known to be
British, and are supposed to be family burying places ; the different
groups being appropriated to different families, and each barrow to
some particular individual, or branch of the family. They are more
numerous upon these downs than in any other part of the West of
England, except in the neighbourhood of Stonehenge and Avebury.
May we not therefore suppose that these groups of barrows, both
here and in Wilts, owe their origin to the same cause ? the vicinity of
the downs to a favourite seat of Druidical worship, and to that desire
which many (particularly uncivilized) people sometimes show, to have
their mortal remains deposited near some sacred spot or temple ? If
we suppose (what the nature of the country, which bears a strong
resemblance to some parts of Wales, might lead us to believe) that
64 Stones and Stone Circles.
this was a seat of the Druids, and perhaps one of those strong situa-
tions or fastnesses to which they retired upon the successes of the
Romans, we have a probable reason for the erection of so many
camps within a short distance of each other. The camps at Eggar-
don, Abbotsbury, Maiden Castle, and Kingston, all within a short
distance of Gorwell, are so situated as to cut off all communication
either by sea or land, and might be intended to over awe the Britons,
to drive them from their strong retreat, and suppress their superstitious
rights. Coins of Vespasian have been frequently found in this neigh-
bourhood. We may therefore probably fix the destruction of these
monuments of our British ancestors, the erection of these strong
camps, and the final submission of this part of the island to the Roman
eagle, to the beginning of his reign under the government of Petilius
Cerealis, or his immediate predecessor, before the invasion of the
country of the Silures.
J. K. Moor.
Temple at Winterbom Abbey, etc.
[1768,//. 112, 113.1
No. I is an irregular square ; one of the angles fronts the area ; it
is 7 feet high, 3 feet each side.
No 2, 1^ feet high and broad.
No. 3, 5 feet 8 inches high, 6 feet 6 inches broad at the base,
I foot thick.
Na 4, 3 feet high and broad.
Nos. 5, 6, 2 feet high and broad
No. 7, scarce i foot high and broad.
Nos. 8, 9, 2 feet 10 inches high, 4 feet 6 inches broad.
The thickness of each stone, except Nos. i and 3, is generally
about 3 feet Their form, except Nos. i and 3, is a rude irregular
square.
About half a mile west of Winterbom Abbey, in a small enclosure,
just by the left hand of the road that leads from Dorchester to Exeter,
are nine stones of unequal dimensions, placed in a circular form ;
the diameter is about 28 feet, their distance from each other is un-
equal, but generally about 6 feet One of them is 7 feet high, another
6, the rest not above 3. Their inequality seems to be owing to time
and the weather. On the north-east is an aperture, which, whether
originally left for an entrance, is uncertain ; if not, there are two or
three stones wanting. Some have thought they are petrified clumps
of flint, others, more probably, that they were brought from a quarry
at Little Bridy, about a mile south-west from hence. It was not
improbably a British temple. Scarce a mile farther lie some stones
which seem to be the remains of some imperfect ancient monuments.
Hereabout is a vast number of barrows, neatly turned and campani-
form ; many of them are surrounded by a trench or ditch.
Temple at Winter born Abbey ^ etc. 65
A quarter of a mile east of Poxwell, near the road from Winfrith
Newburgh to Weymouth, are fifteen stones, ranged in a circular form ;
one or two seem to be wanting on the north-east, or perhaps a vacant
space was left for an entrance. Some of them are quite level with^
others but little above the surface of the ground ; two on the south-
west are 2 feet high and broad, some scarce i. They are extremely
rude, irregular, and full of holes, worn by the weather and time ; they
stand on a tump, or rising ground, round which are the remains of a
shallow ditch. The diameter of the circle is 4^ yards ; eight or nine
paces from this are three or four erect stones, which might perhaps
have been the remains of another ; about 200 yards from these, on
the north-east, are four larger, which perhaps formed another larger
circle, or might have been an avenue to the former.
In this county are many barrows of a singular kind ; they are long
and generally large, narrow at the top, more or less, and slant off at
the sides and ends. There is one of this barrows near Pimpern, by
Blandford, called long barrow, 224 feet long and 10 feet perpendicular.
A large one near Tarent-Gunvil, not far off, was lately opened by
Countess Temple, but nothing found under it but a vast quantity of
human bones. One near Bradford Peverel, by the road between that
vill and Dorchester, is surrounded at the basis with rude stones ;
at Shipton hill in that chapelry, near higher Stirt hill, not far from
the road between Bridport and Dorchester, is a vast long barrow;
it stands on an eminence, and at a distance looks like a large boat,
or hull of a ship, turned keel upwards; it is 749 feet long, 161 broad
at top, 147 high in a slant line. There are in some places another
singular kind of barrows ; they are round, small, almost contiguous,
seem to have but one common basis, only divided at the top, and
stand in a line, two, three or more. By their vicinity, they may
be supposed to be the burial-places of a family. They appear
thus t — \t — \'
On Nine Barrow down, 3 miles east of Corfe Castle, so called from
some of the largest and highest, though they are ten in number^ are
round, and seem to be Roman. Between these, and on the south
side of them, are sixteen tumps of no considerable convexity, and of
various diameters ; they are all neat and campaniform, and mostly
surrounded by a shallow trench ; near them is one single pit, or cavity,
perhaps a place for sacrifices. [See Note 5.]
Description of Kit's Coty House.
[17631 M 248,249.]
As hitherto no very particular description or accurate draught has
been made public of that ancient British monument called Kit's
Coty House, this may not, perhaps, be disagreeable to your readers.
If you are of the same opinion, please to insert it in your next
magazine
vou VI. S
66 Stones and Stone Circles.
Kit's Coty House is situated on the brow of a hill, about a mile
and a half from Aylesford, a quarter of a mile to the right of the
great road leading from Rochester to Maidstone, and is composed of
four vast stones, of that sort called Kentish Ragg ; two are set
parallel ; a third at the west end, perpendicular to these two, and
closing the end ; the fourth, which is the largest, is laid transversely
over, in the manner of Stonehenge, only this is neither mortised nor
parallel to the horizon, but reclines towards the west in an angle of
nine degrees. Perhaps the east end, now open, was once likewise
closed, as at about 70 yards to the north-west lies another large stone,
of the same sort and form as those now standing.
The dimensions of the stones are as follows : — That on the south
side is 8 feet high by 7 feet 6 inches broad, and 2 feet thick, weigh-
ing about 8 tons ; that on the north 8 feet by 8, and 2 feet thick,
weighing 8 tons 10 hundred ; the end stone is extremely irregular,
5 feet 6 inches high by 5 broad, thickness 14 inches, weight about
2 tons 5 hundred; the transverse, or impost, is likewise pretty
irregular, length 11 feet by 8 broad, and 2 thick, weighs 10 tons
7 hundred-weight
This stupendous monument, according to Camden and others, is
erected over the burial-place of Catigern, brother to Guortimere, or
Vortimer, King of the Britons, slain in a battle fought near Ayles-
ford between the Britons and Saxons, in which likewise fell Horsa,
the adverse general, who was buried at a place in this neighbourhood,
from him now called Horstead.
I have only this to add, that, on inquiry, the nearest quarry is at
the distance of six miles. [No Signature.]
[1833, Parr/., /A 121I3]
It may be well to preserve, from the Maidstone Journal of July 4>
1822, the account given of the discovery [of Kit's Coty House] at the
time it took place. ** On Friday last, as some workmen were ploughing
in a field belonging to Mr. George Fowler, situated about a quarter of
a mile from Kit's Coty House, the ploughshare was impeded by some-
thing, which had repeatedly been the case before. The men, in order to
ascertain the cause of the obstruction, commenced digging, and a little
below the surface found two stones about 6^ feet long, lying lengthwise
upright, but rather slanting, between which was a skeleton, in nearly
a perfect state. The skull, the teeth, and two of the vertebrae of the
neck, were quite perfect. On being exposed to the air, they soon
crumbled into dust. The body lay directly east and west, and at the
bottom was a stone, which lay flat This was supposed to have been
occasioned by the pressure of the earth above. (The description is
confused, but I should think this was the cover or lid of the kistvaen,
which had fallen in.) The other stones appear to be exactly similar
Description of Kit's Coty House. 67
to those of Kit's Coty House, and, it is conjectured, were placed
there about the same time."
On reference to the second volume of Stukele/s "Itinerarium
Curiosum," four plates will be found respecting the celebrated Kit's
Coty House, and other similar remains in this vicinity. Two of the
plates contain bird's-eye views of the country (taken in 1722), in the
latter of which (pi 33), not far from the most conspicuous cromlech,
will be seen a large stone, then called the General's Tomb, and in
different parts of the adjacent fields three others are shown, to one of
which the above newspaper anecdote probably relates. About half a
mile nearer Aylesford, in the valley, are still the remains of a larger
monument than the celebrated and conspicuous cromlech. It is
seen in Stukeley, pL 33, as " the lower Coty House ;" and in plates
31 and 32, he has attempted to restore it to the form of the letter D.
In pi. 34 he has given a near view of its actual appearance ; and
another will be seen in Thorpe's " Costumale Roffense," pi. iv., p. 68;
and a very careful plan of it was communicated by Edward Rudge,
Esq., RS.A., to our vol xciv., L 125. |^See/^i/, p. 68.] There was
still, besides, a fourth monument in the immediate neighbourhood, a
" stone called the coffin, in the hedge above Tottington," of which also
Mr. Thorpe has engraved a view (pi iii.), and the exact position cf
which is shown both in his plan and Stukeley's views. [See Note 6.]
\\Z2^ Pan /., pp, 125, 126.]
About half a mile south-east of the village of Enstone in Oxfordshire,
upon the hill at a short distance from the road to Oxford, there is a
large stone standing upright, of considerable dimensions. From the
road it has much the appearance of the Rollrich stone, called the
King's stone, near Long Compton, Oxfordshire.
I was induced a few years since, on my return from Worcestershire,
to take a nearer view and measurement of it by having the ground
removed and cleared to the base of the stones, which convinced me
that it had been a cromlech (/.^., an inclined stone), originally stand-
ing upon three stones of smaller dimensions still remaining near it,
but from which it had long since been thrown off and set upright in
the ground, with only one of the stones on which it had rested
standing in its original position close by its side.
This ancient relick is situated upon a mound of earth apparently
artificial, raised about 3 feet above the surface of the field ; and
of the two other stones that supported the cromlech, which are lying
down at a short distance from it, one is partly buried under the soil
The large upright stone is of a semicircular form. Its height above
the surface of the ground is 8 feet 2 inches ; its greatest width is 6
feet 10 inches ; 3 feet 6 inches thick, 10 feet 9 inches from the top
to its extremity under the soil, and it is in the same rough state as
when taken from the quarry.
5-3
68 Sfanes and Stone Circles.
Dr. Plot is the only author who appears to have mentioned this
stone, and his opinion inclines to its being of British origin.
*' There stands also a stone about half a mile south-west of Enston
Church, on a bank by the wajrside between Neat-Enston and Fulwell,
somewhat flat, and tapering upward from a broad bottom, with other
small ones lying by it ; and another near the road betwixt Burford
and Chipping Norton, which I guess might be erected for the same
purpose with the two former, as above mentioned : unless we shall
rather think both these and them to have been some of the gods of
the ancient Britons, as the reverend and learned Dr. Stillingfleet
thinks it not improbable those pyramidal stones, mentioned by
Camden in Yorkshire, called the Devil's Bolts, sometimes were. And
so likewise Stonehenge in Wiltshire, which he judges neither to be a
Roman temple nor Danish monument, but rather somewhat belonging
to the Idol Markolis, which Buxtorf saith the Rabbins called domum
Kolis, of which more hereafter when I come into that county, and
into Kent, where is Kit's Coty House, which I take to be an antiquity
of the same kind." — (" History of Oxfordshire," p. 351.)
A short time afterwards I made an excursion to Kit's Coty House*
in Kent, one of the most perfect cromlechs existing in England, so
called from Christopher, the name of an old shepherd, who formerly
made it his habitation for a number of years, from which it became
distinguished by the vulgar as Kit's Cote, or cottage, and not, as
erroneously supposed, from its having been the burial-place of
Cattigern, to whose name it bears no relation.
Half a mile below this cromlech, and fronting the same aspect,
nearer to Aylesford, in a field near the road, there is a heap of stones,
which was so much overgrown with coppice, elm, and white thorn
that it was nearly inaccessible. The tenant of the land, upon being
applied to, readily cleared it of the underwood, which enabled me to
take a plan and measurement f of these stones, which lie in an oval
space of 89 feet circumference, within which there are now sixteen
stones large and small, apparently the remains of a Druidical monu-
ment, consisting of five or six cromlechs, all now completely over-
thrown. Several of the smaller stones are partly covered by and
support some of the larger ones which have fallen upon them, and
are raised above the ground in a slanting position. The tenant re-
members when the cromlech marked A was resting upon its supports,
which, with some others, have been since taken away, and also the
circumstance of its falling down in consequence of his digging under
it He asserts that human bones and pieces of armour were found
beneath it, and have likewise been turned up by the plough in various
parts of the same field.
* Two excellent view^ of Kit's Cotjr House were drawn by the late W. Alexander,
Esq., F.S.A., and etched by Mr. G. Cooke. See, also, Thorpe's ''Custumale
Roffense," p. 68.
t The measurement of the stones may be ascertained by the scale.
Remains at Stanton-Drew, 69
These monuments are spoken of by our earliest historians as of
things beyond tradition, the use of which could be even in their time
but barely conjectured, and it is only by comparing their accounts of
the religious rites and civil customs of the aborigines of this island
that a plausible hypothesis can be formed of the purposes for which
they were erected
Edw. Rudgs.
An Account of the Remains at Stanton-Drew, in
Somersetshire.
[178s, Part IL^pp, 761-763.]
Being at Bristol Wells in 1784, I went from thence on May the
i8th, to see the remains of a supposed Druid Temple at Stanton-
Drew. The first appearance did not offer anything which seemed to
deserve a second attention ; however, being on the spot, and it being
yet early in the morning, and cool, I engaged myself in a more
deliberate examination of it I first marked the general form, and
then the relative position of the several stones or parts. I next
measured the diameter (taking it in several directions), and the
distances of the stones from' each other. I soon discovered that the
positions of all these stones could not be reduced to the periphery of
a circle. I then made a second measurement, on an experiment, to
try which of these several parts could be reduced to a circle, and
what relative bearings the rest had to such circle. I will not presume
to have attained a mathematical precision ; for not having, as I
generally have on these occasions, my compass with me, my obser-
vations on the polar and meridianal bearing of this structure were
made by comparing it with that of the church, which stands near it,
and also with the sun's place at the hour I made these observations.
'I'he measurements I made, in part, with a long line of packthread,
and in part by pacing the ground. The day grew excessive ho% and
I began to grow tired ; it is therefore proper to say, I will not be so
positive as to the exactness of my measurements, at the latter part of
the time as at the beginning. However, from such observations as I
was able to make, under these circumstances, I do not apprehend that
they will prove to have incurred any essential error, which can effect
the general description that I shall give.
The following result appears to me to be nearest the truth.
The stones, and apparent places of stones, marked i, 2, 3, b, c, 9,
10, II, 12, seem to stand in the periphery of a circle, whose diameter
is 260 feet. The stones, and apparent places of stones, marked 4, 5,
6, 7, 8, appear to stand in the periphery of another circle, of the same
diameter, intersecting the former in such a manner, that the two
centres, bearing east and west of each other, are at 70 feet distance^
yo Stones and Stone Circles.
so that the whole forms an ellipsis, whose longest diameter is 330
feet, and the lesser 260, there or thereabouts, for I will not affect
more precision than I can answer for. There is another stone, A,
which I will mention presently.
In a line directly east from the stone, . marked 7, at the east end of
the ellipsis, stand two stones, 13, 14, the first at about 16, the second
about 12 paces distance.
At 17 paces distance, directly north ot the two last mentioned
stones, is another circular group of stones, which, upon measurement,
I found to be a circle of 53 or 54 paces, the stones standing in the
general bearing and relative positions as marked in the plan.
After this general description, which will be best understood by
reference to the plan annexed, I will submit some observations, and
some opinions which I made, and arose on my mind, on this curious
remnant of antiquity.
The first and principal of these two structures I suppose to be
formed by two intersecting circles making the boundary line of an
ellipsis. This boundary is not formed of one continued wall or sept,
but marked by large unhewn stones, set up erect at various distances
from each other, according to the usual manner of these patriarchal
buildings. These stones are in height from 8 to 14 feet, from 6 to 8
or 10 broad, and 3 o^ 4 feet thick.
The western end is marked by one large erect stone, i ; the eastern
by two stones, 6 and 7, standing at about 8 paces distance from each
other. The south, at or near the intersection of the circles, is
marked by two stones, about 3 paces from each other, both lying at
present horizontal ; whether they ever were erect may be a doubt
I am rather disposed to think they were originally in this position.
The north is marked by two stones on each side the intersection, the
one is standing, the other is fallen down ; these may have been so
placed, as I can conceive, for religious astronomical purposes.
The stone at 5 is not only thrown down, but appears to me to have
been removed from the place in the periphery marked ►{<
I was told upon the spot, by the present owners of the estate where
this structure is found, that Lord Sandwich did, some years ago, take
an actual survey of it I wish that survey, which must be better and
more precise than this which I have made in the manner above
described, could be obtained from his lordship.
I have seen, since the writing of this paper, a plan of this structure
inserted in a map, said to be taken by measurement Exactly as I
have said above, the measurer could not reduce all the stones to the
periphery of a circle. Part he has so plotted down, as I have done ;
the rest, he declares, he can make nothing of.
He mentions and gives the plan of two other groups of stones,
which I had not time to examine.
I am happy to find that allowing for the variation of the compass.
Long Meg and her Daughters. 71
my general bearings and his do not differ essentially ; but, as he says
his were taken by actual survey, I will suppose his to be more exact
than mine.
T. P.
Long Meg and her Daughters.
[1752./. 3".]
I went some days ago to examine that curious remain of British
antiquity called " Long Meg and her Daughters," about which it must
be acknowledged all conjectures are extremely uncertain.
They are situated upon an eminence on the east side of the river
Eden, near a mile from it, above a village called Little Salkeld. This
eminence appears to have been all moor formerly, but now about half
the stones are within enclosures, placed in an orbicular form, in some
places double. I make seventy principal ones, but there are one or
two more disputable. Several lie fiat on the surface, their greatest
eminence not exceeding a foot ; others yet less, and others perpen-
dicular to the horizon. The highest of those in the circular range
does not much exceed 3 yards, nor is it more than 4 wide and 2 deep ;
but none of them have a regularity of shape, though the constructors
seem to have aimed at a parallelopipedon. Long Meg herself is
near 4 yards high and about 40 yards from the ring towards the south-
west, but leans much, it being of what they call the free-stone kind,
is more regular than those in the circle, and is formed like a pyramid
on a rhomboidal base, each side being near two yards at the bottom,
but a good deal narrower at top. (What I mean by the base is only
the ground-plan of the stone itself, for as to what is in architecture
called base it has none but the earth.) The others in the orbicular
range are of no kind of stone to be found in that neighbourhood, and
the four facing the cardinal points are by far the largest and most
bulky of the whole ring. They contain at least 648 solid feet, or
about 13 London cartloads, and, unless ihey are a composition (which I
am much induced to believe), no account can be given what carriages
could have brought them there, nor by what means they could be
placed erect when they came. It is to be noted that these measures
are only what appeared above ground. We have reason to suspect
that at least a yard is lost in the earth, which will make the whole
amount to a prodigious weight more. Others are erect, but not of
such enormous size, and others, as I said before, lie flat long, not
thrown down, as I think, but so placed either by choice or design,
and som^ of these are also very lau'ge. In diameter the ring may be
80 yards or more, and the circle is pretty regular, but how they came
there and their destination is the important question. [See Note 7.]
I am,, sir, yours, etc G. S.
72 Stones and Stone Circles.
[I752,>>?).372, 373,]
^ The vulgar notion that the largest of these stones has breasts, and
resembles the remainder of a female statue, is caused by the whimsical
irregularity of the figure, in which a fervid imagination may discover
a resemblance of almost anything ; as various figures are discovered
in burning coals, veins of marble, and floating clouds, which cannot
possibly be pointed out to another, though to another, without being
pointed out, they would necessarily be visible if they had any existence
in the fire, marble, or cloud, and were not merely creatures of the
imagination. . . . The substance of these stones, except the tallest —
which is not, however, the largest — is a compound of small pebbles,
sufficiently indured — run together with coarse sand and such other
ingredients as rendered the whole mass fusible at different times
before the last stratum grew too hard to admit a coalition of the
next . . . They appear to suffer but little by change of weather,
though their situation is remarkably bleak. . . .
G. S.
Carl Lofts at Shap, Westmoreland.
[1824, /'Off 7.,/^. 3. 4.]
At Shap is a stupendous monument of antiquity called Carl Lofts,
/.^., '' the liftings of the Ceorles or husbandmen." It is composed of
two rows of large stones of unhewn granite, from 6 to 12 feet in
diameter. The form is a gentle curve, or something like the head of
a well-formed mason's hammer. It commences about half a mile
south of the town, and runs parallel with the Kendal road, on the
east side, for about three-quarters of a mile, when it turns off in a
north-west direction for about the length of a mile ; that is, making
its whole length about if miles, or perhaps about 3,000 yards. At
the south end. about 20 yards from the south-west corner, on the
outside of the stones, was a ^mall tumulus, which, since the enclosure
of Shap common in 181 5, is now levelled and destroyed. When this
tumulus was opened into, it was found to be composed of granite and
cobble-stone : as the strata of stone here is limestone, the granite
must have been gathered on the surrounding surface, and Ihe cobble
must have been brought from some distance. At about the distance
of 100 yards from the turn at the south end, on the outside, was a
circle about 18 feet in diameter of similar stones, each about i^ yards
in diameter, and in the centre thereof was one about i^ yards high
from the surface of the ground that tapered to a point This has
also been destroyed since the inclosure of the common. The distance
of the stones in the lines was 8, yo, or 12 yards ; but at the turn at
the souch end, which remains perfect, they are something nearer,
being from 3 to 8 yards. The distance between each line at the south
end is 89 feet This distance seems gradually to have diminished
about one yard in every hundred, till it came to a wedge-like point at
Carl Lofts at Shap^ Westmoreland. 73
the north end, near to the field called Skellaw. In this field called
Skellaw, which signifies " the hill of the skulls," is a small tumulus on
an eminence, which no doubt is connected with the monument,
though it deviates about 190 yards to the north-east from the last
stone now remaining ; but it is highly probable the stones were con-
tinued a little further northward. This deviation, however, may be
accounted for from the eligibility of the situation for prosi)ect, as from
this spot the tumulus at the south end could be seen, and nearly the
whole line of the monument. A few years ago a countryman, wanting
stones for the highway, dug into this tumulus, thinking to find stone;
but not finding the appearance of any, he soon desisted. In his
attempt, however, he found human bones.
When the antiquary now views the remains of this remarkable
monument, he cannot but regret at what, perhaps, he may call the
barbarous treatment it has met with. The southern end, which
extended about half a mile on the common, had both rows tolerably
perfect till the enclosure of the common in 181 5 ; since then these
stones have nearly all been blasted and removed into the walls,
excepting fourteen, which compose the turn at the south end, which
are on a plot of land allotted to the Earl of Lonsdale, and which he
has given orders to be preserved. The northern end, for nearly the
length of a mile, lying among old enclosed and arable land, had
generally been removed at former periods before the recollection of
any person now living. There are, however, four on a piece of land,
which cannot be tilled for limestone rock, which seem to form the
terminating point, or at least a part of it, at the north end. They are
respectively 11, 25, and 20 yards distant from each other. Probably
two may have been removed from among these, as the two latter
distances seem to admit of such a supposition. Between those four
and the fourteen at the south end only fifteen now remain in their
original position. They are left here and there, and serve as a sort
of guide to trace the course of the monument The blasted and
broken fragments of the others may be seen in the walls adjoining.
One of the most prominent that remains is called Guggleby stone,
which formed part of the west line, and stands on its small end near
the footpath leading to the village of Keld. It is 8 feet high, and
37 feet in girth at its middle. The stone next remaining north of it,
which formed part of the east line, is about 13 feet long and 6 feet
in diameter. But it is a different kind of stone to all the rest ; this
is basalt or whinstone, and all the others are granite. This stone
probably once was placed upon its end, for one end seems to have
been squared with a chisel, and it has the appearance of having been
overturned by digging limestone from beneath it In the middle of
the part squared is a hole 4 inches over and 2 inches deep ; about
2 feet therefrom, on a sloping corner, is another hole of about the
same size. On one of the comers at the other end is a rude circle,
74 Stones and Stone Circles.
8 inches across, and a shallow hole in the centre. By minute
examination other inscriptions of this kind, perhaps, might be found
here, as on the obelisks at Aubrey described by Dr. Stukeley.
These masses of granite were, no doubt, originally from Wastdale,
which is about two miles from the south end of the monument, for
here a bed of similar granite is found, the only bed, I believe, in
Westmoreland. It is remarkable that, for the distance of three miles
eastward from the low end of Wastdale, an immense quantity of
rounded worn-like granite stones of all sizes, up to 4 yards in diameter,
are found scattered over the face of the country to the above distance
or further, which is wholly of a limestone and freestone strata. They
seem to be spread in a fan-like form from Wastdale, and are more
thinly scattered, and also of smaller size, as the distance increases.
These primary stones being found on the surface of secondary ones
demonstrate that they have thus been thrown by some convulsion in
nature of which we have no record ; or, according to Professor Buck-
land, in his " Reliquiae Diluvianse " on similar appearances, they have
thus been transported and drifted by a diluvial current. He, indeed,
supposes that a diluvial current is the only adequate cause that can
account for these appearances. See also Edinburgh Review for
October, 1823, No. 77.
Whether the stones which compose the Carl Lofts were brought
direct from Wastdale, or whether they were gathered from among the
scattered ones, can only now be matter of conjecture ; but probably
they were some of the scattered ones, as they might be found nearer
for carriage and already detached. But how such immense blocks
(several being from 3 to 4 yards in diameter) could be carried and
placed in the regular manner they were it is difficult to form an idea.
George Hall.
Celtic Temple at Shap, in Westmoreland.
[1833, Part/.,f.4.]
In the " Reliquiae Galeanae," p. 387, is the subjoined interesting
passage, in a letter dated Stamford, September 24, 1743, from Dr.
Stukeley to Mr. Gale : —
" I have got a vast drawing and admeasurement, from Mr. Routh,
of Carlisle, of the stones at Shap " (in Westmoreland), ** which I
desired from him. I'hey give me so much satisfaction that verily I
shall call on you next year to take another religious pilgrimage with
me thither. I find it to be, what I always supposed, another huge
serpentine temple, like that of Avebury. The measure of what are
left extends a mile and a half ; but, without a doubt, a great deal of it
has been demolished by the town, abbey, and everything else there-
abouts."
I send you the above for insertion in your magazine, with the hope
Celtic Temple at Skapy in Westmoreland. 75
that some of your correspondents may be able to inform you whether
the drawing and plan which it mentions were ever published or not ;
if they were, in what work ? and if not — whether they exist, and
where ?
The inclosure of Shap Fell made sad havoc in the temple. Traces
of it, however, still exist, and the recovery of Mr. Routh's plans
might go far to find out its original form, and throw much light upon
the history of the neighbourhood, which abounds in Druidical remains.
Dr. Stukeley is certainly right in calling the whole collection of
stones a temple. It is not, as has been commonly and idly conjec-
tured, a Danish monument Similar works abound in parts of Wales,
Ireland, and Scotland, where the Danes never settled. Neither is
there any evidence, or probable ground of conjecture, that the Danes
ever erected any such monuments of their victories in Britain as this.
They were too intent upon plunder and securing their conquests, to
have either time or inclination to get up monuments of their glory.
It is a remarkable feature of Westmoreland and Cumberland, that
their uncultivated hills and plains are scattered all over with Druidical
remains ; while in Northumberland and Durham, which adjoin them
on the east, scarcely anything of the kind exists. There is, indeed,
good historical evidence to show that Cumberland and Westmoreland
were inhabited by the Celtic race, called Cumbri, or Cimmerii, for
several centuries after the Romans left Britain ; whereas the eastern
shores of the island, in Northumberland and Durham, were inhabited
by German tribes before the Roman era. The rude masses of stone,
of which the temple is made, consist chiefly of the granite and grau-
wacke, which abound in the mountains to the west of Shap. They
are all diluvial ; and immense numbers of similar sorts of blocks are
found all over the hills about Shap and Orton, and as far east as
about Appleby and Brough. Some blocks of the Wastdale granite
(a district to the south-west of Shap) are even left upon the bare
limestone strata on Stanemore ; one lies as a curiosity in the streets
of Darlington ; and rounded fragments of the same kind are often
found. [See Note 8.]
Stonehenge.
[1823, Part I, ^ pp. 127-130.]
" Thou noblest monument of Albion's isle,
Whether by Merlin's aid, from Scythia's shore,
To Amber's fatal plain, Pendragon bore,
Huge frame of giant hands the mighty pile,
T' entomb his Britons slain by Henguist's guile,
Or Druid Priests, sprinkled with human gore.
Taught 'mid thy massy maze their mystic lore ;
Or Danish chiefs, enriched with savage spoil,
T(y Stones and Stone Circles.
To Victory's idol vast, an unhewn shrine,
Rear'd the rude heap ; or in th^ hallow'd round,
Repose the kings of Brutus' j^enuint; line ;
Or here those kings in solemn state were crown'd.
Studious to trace thy pond'rous origin,
We muse on ^any an ancient tale renowned."
As the subject for the Newdigate Prize Poem for this year is
" Stonehenge," we shall, at the request of an Oxford correspondent,
devote a page or two to the consideration of the probable origin and
purposes of this extraordinary monument
This interesting assemblage of stones is distant 2 miles west of
Amesbury, and 6 miles from Salisbury. The name of Stonehenge is
evidently Saxon, q, d, the hanging-stones.
Passing by the fanciful opinions and conjectures of Nennius,
Jeffrey of Monmouth, and Henry of Huntingdon (alluded to in the
above elegant sonnet), we shall first notice the celebrated Camden,
who could see nothing but confusion and rudeness in this stately pile.
Inigo Jones (who in 1655 first published any regular work on
Stonehenge), full of ideas of architecture, conceived it to be a Tuscan
temple of Coelum or Terminus, built by the Romans, as if the rudest
monuments of that people were not more regular than this. He
thought it was raised at a period when the Romans " had settled the
country under their own empire ; and by the introduction of foreign
colonies, had reduced the natural inhabitants unto the society of
civil life, by training them up in the liberal sciences."
Dr. Charleton, in 1663, published an answer to Jones's work, in
which he contends that Stonehenge was erected by the Danes ; but
this could not be the case, as the monument existed long before the
Danes invaded England. Jones's work was defended by his son-in-
law and editor, Mr. Webb, in 1665.
Aylett Summers next published a treatise on Stonehenge ; in which
he remarks : " Why may not these giants (alluding to the appellation of
" Chorea Gigantum," given to this monument) be the Phoenicians ;
and the art of erecting these stones, instead of the stones themselves,
brought from the furthermost parts of Africa, the known habitations
of the Phoenicians ?"
Bishop Gibson, in his edition of "Camden's Britannia," 1694,
after combating the opinions of preceding writers, observes : " One
need make no scruple to affirm that it is a British monument, since
it does not appear that any other nation had so much footing in this
kingdom, as to be the authors of such a rude, and yet magnificent
pile."
The attentive though credulous Aubrey first hit on the notion of
its being a Druid temple. With this notion Mr. Toland agreed ; and
Dr. Stukeley, in his '* Stonehenge," by accurate admeasurements con-
firmed it He calls in the assistance of the Tyrean Hercules, to do
greater honour to the structure.
Stanehenge. 77
Mr. Wood, in his "Choir Gawr," agreed with Dr. Stukeley in
attributing it to the Druids, with this additional idea, that it had an
astronomical as well as theological use, and was a temple of the
moon.
William Cooke, M.A., in an enquiry into the Patriarchal and
Druidical religion, etc, supposes Stonehenge to have been a place
held sacred by the Druids, and appropriated to great assemblies of
the people.
Wood's opinion was further illustrated in a brief and comprehensive
manner by Dr. Smith, in "Choir Gawr," 1770. The work is ably
reviewed by Mr. Gough, in our vol. xli., p. 30 [See Note 9], where
Dr. Smith's opinions may be seen ; or in Cough's " Camden," and
edit., 1806, voL L, p. 155.
That eminent antiquary, Mr. King, in his " Munimenta Antiqua,''*
conjectures that it was constructed in the very latest ages of Druidism,
whilst that religion was yet struggling against the overwhelming tide
of Christianity.
Mr. Davies, the learned author of " Celtic Researches," and of
the " Mythology, etc., of the British Druids," enters more profoundly
than perhaps any other author into the question respecting the
origin and appropriation of Stonehenge. He supposes that this
structure, and Silbury Hill, are two of the three works alluded to in
a Welsh Triad, as constituting the greatest labours of the Island of
Britain : /.^., " lifting the stone of Ketti ; — building the work of
Emrys ; and piling the Mount of the Assemblies." That Stonehenge
is really a Druididd structure, the same learned writer further remarks,
'* is evident from the language in which it was described, and the great
veneration in which it was held by the primitive bards ; those im-
mediate descendants and avowed disciples of the British Druids.
As the great sanctuary of the Dominion, or metropolitan temple of
our heathen ancestors, so complex in its plan, and constructed upon
such a multitude of astronomical calculations, we find it was not
exclusively dedicated to the sun, the moon, Saturn, or any other
individual object of superstition ; but it was a kind of Pantheon, in
which all the Arkite and Sabine divinities of British theok^gy were
supposed to have been present ; for here we perceive Noe and Hu,
the deified patriarch ; Elphin and Rheiddin, the sun ; Eseye, Isis ;
Kfid, Ceres, with the cell of her sacred fire ; Llywy, Proserpine ;
Gwyden, Hermes ; Budd, Victory, and several others."
As to the precise date of Stonehenge, Mr. Davies says nothing
definitely, but remarks it was most likely of later origin than the
introduction of the Helio-Arkite superstition, which is traditionally
said to have been of foreign growth, and to have come by the way of
Cornwall, and therefore probably from the tin merchants.
Its being mentioned by the bard Aneurin, in his poem of
* Reviewed by Mr. Gough in vol. Ixxil, p. 142. [See Note 10.]
78 Stones and Stone Circles.
*' Gododin/* as existing previous to the massacre by Hengist, is
justly remarked to be a decided evidence of its not having been
erected to commemorate that event, " but that, on the contrary, it
was a monument of venerable antiquity in the days of Hengist ; and
that its peculiar sanctity influenced the selection of the spot for the
place of conference between the British and Saxon princes. It is
equally clear that the sacred building did not receive its name of
Gwaith Emrys from Emrys or Ambrosius, a prince who fought with
Hengist ; but that, on the other hand, it communicates to him its
own name, as he was president and defender of the Ambrosial
Stones."
This learned writer further mentions a passage in the Greek
historian, Diodorus Siculus, describing a round temple dedicated to
Apollo, which Mr. Davies concludes to have been situated in Britain,
and to have been most likely our monument of Stonehenge.
Mr. Maurice, in his ** Indian Antiquities," forms a similar conclu-
sion from the above passage with Mr. Davies, and further remarks,
that in his opinion the Celtic deity, Bel, is identified with Apollo, and
says, that the first name of Britain, after it was peopled, was Vel
Ynys, or the Island of BeL He also supposes '' that the battle of
Hen Velen, mentioned in the song of the bard Taliesin, alludes to
one fought near Stonehenge. The massacre of the Britons in that
neighbourhood is frequently alluded to by the Welsh bards. In
Song XII. of the Gododin, by Aneurin, we find the stone cell of
the sacred fire noticed ; and in Song XV. we find also the great stone
fenu of the common sanctuary. In the song of another Welsh bard,
Cuthelin, we also find allusions made to Stonehenge, in the words
"Mawd, Cor Cyvoeth," the great circle, or "sanctuary of the
dominion."
Sir Richard Colt Hoare* coincides entirely with the opinions of
Mr. Davies, from whom he has clearly derived the etymology of the
word Ambresbury. Its high antiquity, he adds, is corroborated by
the fact that many of the barrows around must have been formed
subsequently to the temple, though probably before the arrival of the
Romans in Britain. He thinks that Stonehenge must have been to
the Britains what Mecca is now to the Mahomedans.
The Rev. James Ingram, in his " Inaugural Lecture on the Utility
of the Saxon Literature," has suggested a new idea relative to Stone-
henge. He considers it as the " Heathen burial place "; and the
cursus adjoining, as the Hippodrome on which the goods of the
deceased were run for at the time of burial.
Another novel opinion relative to the construction of Stonehenge
is advanced by the late Mr. Cunnington, in the History of Ancient
Wiltshire. It is grounded on the difference in quality and size
between the stones of the great circle and ellipsis, and those of the
* "History of Ancient Wilts," vol. i., p. 157.
Stonehenge. 79
smaller ones. ** In considering the subject," says Mr. Cunnington,
" I have been led to suppose that Stonehenge has been erected at
different eras ; that the original work consisted of the outward circle,
and its imposts, and the inner oval, or large trilithons ; and that the
smallest circle and oval, of inferior stones, were raised at a later
period : for they add nothing to the grandeur of the temple, but
rather gave a littleness to the whole, and more particularly so, if,
according to Smith, you add the two small trilithons of granite."
The next opinion relative to Stonehenge, we have to notice, is
somewhat analogous to the last. It is contained in the following
judicious remarks, extracted from a letter of the Rev. Samuel Great-
heed, addressed to Mr. Britton, and printed in the " Beauties of
England and Wales," vol. xv., p. 707 :
" Stonehenge has nothing about it implying a higher antiquity than
the age of Aurelius Ambrosius, but the circle and oval of upright
stones, which perfectly resemble our numerous Druidical temples,
from Cornwall to Cumberland. These parts alone of the structure,
therefore, I consider as Druidical ; and I apprehend that these alone
were standing when the Saxons assassinated the British chiefs,
assembled with them on that spot, at a Council Feast. No authen-
tic accounts of that period oppose the probability that Ambrosius
might erect there a durable monument in memory of his countrymen,
and of the cruel treachery of their invaders. Nothing is more likely,
than that he would, if he had opportunity, adopt such means of
animating the Britons to perseverance in so wearisome a contest ;
and certainly nothing could have been better suited to the purpose
than such an erection as Stonehenge, which might equally sustain
the violence of enemies and the lapse of ages. The zeal of his
numerous followers would carry them through the requisite labour.
The pattern of the Romans was sufficient to supply the mechanical
powers which it demanded, and it is so obvious an imitation of their
architecture that Inigo Jones, who had well studied the subject, sup-
posed it to be their performances. The plan was regulated by that
of the original Druidical structure, the outer stones of which must
have been partly removed, to admit the trilithons ; but would, of
course, be replaced The rough squaring, the continued imposts,
and the mortices and tenons by which they are secured to the
standards, are not only unlike every work of the Druids, but incom-
patible with their principles. Add to this the discovery of Roman
coins beneath some of the larger stones, implies their position not to
have been earlier than the date assigned by the tradition. All other
hypotheses on the subject are totally conjectural, and to me they
appear as improbable in themselves as they are irreconcilable with
each other.
" It is, I believe, agreed by the best lithologists that the larger
members of Stonehenge are sarsens^ similar to those called the Grey-
8o Stones and Stone Circles.
wethers, which^ in innumerable places, protrude above the soil, be-
tween Marlborough and Avebury, and therefore were probably trans-
ported thence."
Mr. Fosbroke, in his " Encyclopedia of Antiquities," p. 72, is of
opinion that the elucidation of Mr. Maurice b the best, and that it
is the Temple of the. Sun in Britain mentioned by Diodorus. It is
(says Mr. M.) circular, as were all temples of the Sun and Vesta.
The adytum, or sanctum sanctorum, is oval, representing the mun-
dane egg, aftdr the manner that all those adyta, in which the sacred
fire perpetually blazed, was constantly fabricated. The situation is
fixed astronomically \ the grand entrance, and that of Abury, being
placed exactly north>east, as all the gates or portals of the ancient
cavern temples were, especially those dedicated to Mithra, />. the
Sun. The number of stones and uprights in the outward circles,
making together exactly sixty, plainly alludes to that peculiar and
prominent feature of Asiatic astronomy, the sexagenary cycle ; while
the number of stones forming the minor cycle of the cove, being
exactly nineteen, displays to us the famous Metonic, or rather Indian
cycle ; and that of thirty repeatedly occurring, the celebrated age or
generation of the Druids. Further, the temple being uncovered,
proves it to have been erected before the age of Zoroaster, 500 years
before Christ, who first covered in the Persian temples. Finally the
heads and horns of oxen and other animals found buried in the spot,
prove that the sanguinary rites, peculiar to the solar su[)erstition, were
actually practised within the awful bounds of this hallowed circle.
Want of room prevents our quoting further from Mr. Fosbroke's
interesting Encyclopedia, we must therefore refer to the work itself
(p. 73, etc) for further observations on Stonehenge, and on Stone
Circles in general, as well as on Cromlechs, Rocking Stones, etc, etc.
Some remarks by Mr. Fosbroke on the era of Stonehenge, may be
seen in vol. IxxxvL, i., p. 510. [See Note 11.]
Stonehenge has frequently been the subject of discussion in our
magazine, and the reader may consult with advantage vol xxii., pp.
373* 374 > IxvL, 648 ; a good defence of Dr. Stukeley's opinion in
vol. xliv., p. 199; Mr. Strutt's observations on Stonehenge, in voL
xlviii., p. 268 ; Mr. Warner's opinion, in vol. Ixxi., p. 916 ; Mr. Big-
land's, vol. Ixxx., i., p. 344 ; and Mr. Marshall's, vol. Ixxxviii., i.,
p. 57. [See Note 12.] A very neat view of Stonehenge, drawn by
William Hamper, Esq., F.S.A, is given in vol. Ixxvi., p. 600, before
the last fall of the stones, in 1797, which fall is noticed in vol.
Ixvii., p. 75 ; vol. Ixx., p. 1062. Several models of Stonehenge have
been made, one of which is deposited in the Museum at Oxford.
A very good large view of Stonehenge, taken in March, 1796, by
James Malton, was published in 1800, dedicated to the Society of
Antiquaries ; bUt the most complete illustrations of it are the views
and plans, so accurately drawn by Mr. P. Crocker, in Sir Richard
Stanehenge. 8 1
Hoare's splendid work on the '' Antient History of Wiltshire," which
work all who wish to know more of this " Wonder of the West " may
advantageously consult
l^^^l, Part L, pp. i\% I7fx\
To your account of Stonehenge (p. 127), which forms the subject
of the Newdigate Prize Poem thb year, in the University of Oxford,
I will take the liberty of adding, in the spirit of mere literary courtesy
more particularly, some remarks of the learned Camden, together
with the testimony of Mons. Rapin and Rastell, upon this interesting
subject Though you will not, I find, go with me into the *^ fanciful
conjectures " of Geoffry of Monmouth, etc, which you will perhaps
term, in the language of the learned editor of Rastell's Chronicles,
the Rev. Mr. Dibdin, '' repetitions of the floating superstitions of the
day," yet you may be induced to agree with the late Mr. Herbert, in
his remarks, so far as to allow these accounts to be '* curious," and be
unwilling to pass over what Rastell mentions with such apparent care.
I have adhered, as much as possible, to the language of these
authors, being anxious to lose no part of the force oi their several
descriptions of this wonderful place, still less to add anything but
what stands upon such authority as to extricate me from the accusa-
tion of '^wildness of conjecture"; and I may I trust say, with the
honest chronicler John Selden, "that I have been intent not to go
by hearsay, or by common report of people, but have fished for the
certainty of this story out of common records, or at least by report of
men of worthy credit"
** About six miles from Salisbury," says Camden, '' is to be seen a
huge and monstrous piece of work, such as Cicero termeth * Insanam
su^tructionem.' For within the circuit of a ditch there are erected
in manner of a crown, in three ranks or courses, one within another,
certain mighty and unwrought stones, whereof some are 28 feet high
and 7 feet broad ; upon the head of which, others, like over-thwart
pieces, do bear and rest crosswise with small tenents and mortescis,
so as the whole frame seemeth to hang : whereof we call it * Stone-
henge,' like as our old historians termed it, for the greatness ' Chorea
Gigantem ' — the Giant's Daunce."
Stonehenge was erected, according to Rapin, in the year 473 by
Ambrosius Aureiianus, in memory of the 300 Britons who were
massacred on the ist of May by Hengist the Saxon.
Rastell, in his Chronicles, speaks of it as follows : " Aurylambrose
King of Bryttayn, a.d. 480, was buried at Stonehenge, under the
great stone, which stones the Britons say, one Merlin, who was be-
gotten of a woman by the Devil, brought out of Ireland by the craft
of magic, which divers men think standeth neither with good faith
nor reason. And also the Britons say, that this Merlin told and
wrote many prophecies, whereon they greatly rely. But other clerks
VOL. VI. 6
82 Stones and Stone Circles.
and great learned men give little credence to them. And also they
say that those stones were never brought out of Ireland by Merlin,
but that they were made by craft of men, as of cement and mortar,
tbade of flint stones."
'* And what marvel," says Camden, '* read we not, I pray you, in
Pliny, that the sand or dust of Puteoli being covered over with water,
becometh forthwith a very stone ? — that the cisterns in Rome of sand,
digged out of the ground, and the strongest lime wrought together,
grow so hard, that they seem stones indeed ? — and that statues and
images of marble chippings and'small grit grow together so compact
and firm that they are deemed entire and solid marble ?"
" One reason," continues Rastell, " they allege thereto, because
those stones be so hard that no iron tool will cut them without grete
bysynes ; and also they be of one fashion and bigness, save only there
be two sorts, and so most likely to be cast and made in a mould ;
and that men think it a thing almost impossible to get so many great
stones out of any quarry or rock that should be so hard, so equal in
bigness and fashion. Another reason, they say, that it is not well
possible to have so many great stones to be all of one colour and ot
one grain throughout and in every place, but that some stone should
be more dark of colour in one place or another, or at least have some
veins of other colours in them, as great stones of marble and other
great stones commonly have. But these stones at Stonehenge be all
of one grit, without change of colour, and all of one fashion ; there-
fore many great wise men suppose them to be made of a mortar of
flint or other stones."
Camden adds, " I have heard that in the time of King Henry VIII.
there was found near this place a table of metal, as it had been tin
and lead commixt, inscribed with many letters, but in so strange a
character that neither Sir Thomas Elliot nor Master Lilye, school-
master of Paul's, could read it, and therefore neglected it Had it
been preserved, somewhat happily might have been discovered as
concerning Stonehenge."
It has been justly wondered, says Mons. Rapin in a note, " how
stones of twenty or thirty tons could be raised so high as they are ; it
will not be amiss to give Mr. Rowland's hypothesis in his ' Mona
Antiqua.' Small mounds were thrown up with sloping sides, and
level at the top. Up these sides, with great levers and pullies, by
little and little, they rolled and heaved up the stones they designed to
erect ; then laying them along on the top of the hillock, they dug
holes in the earth at the end of the stones as deep as the stones were
long, into which they let them slip straight on ends, with their tops
level with the tops of the mount ; then placing other stones upon
these, and taking away the earth almost to the bottom of the sup-
porters, there appeared what we call Stonehenge, Rollrich, or
Cromlech." Yours, etc. T. F.
Present State of Stonehenge. 83
Present State of Stonehenge.
[1831, Part IL,pp. SiS-Sao.]
Having visited Stonehenge in a little excursion I lately made, I
beg to offer a few observations on that extraordinary edifice.
Most persons who have visited these remains, I believe, remark
that they do not impress any idea of grandeur, or produce any im-
posing effect, when viewed at a distance. This certainly was not the
case with me. When I looked down from the brow of the hill on
the Amesbury road, these yet magnificent ruins, denoting a circular
temple, the distinct parts of which were composed of single massive
rocks, impressed on my mind a stupendous work of vast but rude
conception.
Having myself conceived a notion that it was a temple, the form
of which had reference to celestial objects, and that the sun was
probably the object more particularly contemplated by the people who
planned and erected it, 1 was no way dissatisfied with reading the
ideas of others on this subject, and not discouraged in this idea on
my closer view and inspection of the remains.
I made a close and careful examination, and took measurements
of many parts, which I believe are tolerably accurate. The result is
to give a different figure to the two interior orders or arrangements of
stones ; the figures of which are called by Stukeley and others ovals,
and by Inigo Jones hexagonals. By my measurements these two
orders of the stones stand concentric, or nearly so, with the outer
circles ; consequently they form a portion of a circle, as far as they
extend. They have consisted, first, of an outer set of five pairs of
stupendous rocks, with a third placed on, or crowning the top of each
pair ; two pairs and two single ones remain standing. The
standards of each pair are set very close together, but a considerable
space or interval occurs between each pair ; and in the front or open-
ing north-east a very large space or interval occurs (45 feet), which
has no doubt led some people to conclude a sixth* pair was formerly
existing ; but this was evidently never the case, for the space is filled
up or marked with a straight line by the continuation of the inner
small order of stones, which give a figure to the two interior orders
of a large portion of a circle (or nearly that figure). Taking the
diameter of the circle at 52 feet, on the radiust of which the extreme
inner angles of the great standards are placed, the intersection at two
points on the radius, giving the space of 45 feet between them, will
cut off about one-fourth of the circle, and consequently leave three-
* This led Inigo Jones to call the figure hexagonal, and Dr. Smith to imagine
there were seven pair of standards ; but Stukeley only speaks of ten of these stones,
which only make five pair, all of which, standing or prostrate, were in existence
July, 1831.
f King, speaking of the figure as oval, says the shortest diameter is about
52 feet.
6—2
84 Stones and Stone Circles.
fourths for the space included within the stones : thus giving a very
good form of a theatre, with a front or proscenium, where the straight
line is marked by the smaller set or order of stones, to view or look
into the interior part The straight line of the part forming the
front, determines the figure, and necessarily precludes the introducing
a sixth pair of standards, which, therefore, we may conclude, never
were in existence ; there is no vestige of such, and no account, I
believe, not even the oldest, detailing any particulars of the form and
order of the stones, ever alludes to there having been any.
In support of this notion, that the figure was as stated, the space
between the inner corners of the great standards at the front (a pair of
which are standing on the east side, and a single one the northern-
most on the west) which I measured to be about 45 feet, is, as I
have before stated, marked by a straight line of smaller stones from
side to sida Of these there are four remaining, one of the small
taper kind of stones, and three flattish stones, with spaces just
sufficient for two other stones, thus making the number six in all,
and forming the line of the proscenium or front. The small inner
taper stone is on the east, then there is a space between that and
the next, a flat-shai)ed stone, for a similar shaped stone. The three
remaining flattish stones come next in a line, at about equal distances
from each other, and in a line with the small taper stone and the
nterior side of the remaining upright standard on the north, with
space between the flattish stone nearest that side and such remain-
ing standard, for a small taper inner stone.
The form of the theatre or inner compartment would, according to
what can be designed from the remains of these interior orders' or
arrangements, be represented by the annexed sketch.
To confirm this idea, there are two other flattish, dark-coloured,
and very hard stones, like flinty slate (forming part of the line of the
second or small circle of stones), which stand in a line with the
stones at the entrance in the outer circle, and the two central flattish
stones of the front of the theatre, which seem to mark the line of
approach or entrance into the theatre.
Much has been observed by writers as to the altar-stone, and in
the course of my examination I directed my attention to this subject.
I was much surprised to find, after what I had read, that instead of
one stone (that underlying the greater fallen standard at the back
and the impost), there is another, as similar as it is possible, and of
the same quality of stone, but rather darker, lying close by it, as if
thrown down at the same period.
The stone* I allude to lies obliquely, with one end covered in the
earth, at the south-east, and in front of the large leaning standard at
* This stone is shown in Wood's ground-plan of Stonehenge ; but the size is not
correctly or pro}tortionably given, and the comer or end under the earth is marked
so as to appear as if broken oflf.
Present Stale of Stonehenge. 85
the back of the theatre, which hangs over it, and lies in fact between
the southern end of the large fallen impost of the back pair of
standards and the small taper inner stone, on which the great leaning
standard apparently rests. This stone I measured, and found its
dimensions corresponding with the stone called the altar, the part
covered being added to that exix)sed. The measurements of these
stones I made less than Mr. Webb's account stated in Stukeley.
Time may have diminished their size, but ray measurements corre-
spond with the proportions in Wood's plan.
The stone called the altar, according to my note, is rather better
than 4 yards long and i wide, and half a yard thick. The other I have
alluded to was nearly the same, that is, 3^ yards uncovered, and as
far as I could thrust my stick under the earth I felt the stone ;
1 may safely add half a yard more for this. The breadth and thick-
ness corresponded with the stone called the altar. Both stones
evidently lie out of place, but the fair supposition is, the one being
underneath the fallen standard and impost, and the other close by
them, that they are near the original site, and have been thrown
down at the same time, from their lying next and under the great
standards at the back ; that this is the case, there can I think be
no doubt
It will be seen, from there being two stones as just described, the
idea of the stone under the great standard and impost being the
altar, and that it laid flat, and has not been disturbed from its
original position in the edifice, cannot be right. That it formed
part of the altar is probable, and I beg leave to offer this conjec-
ture. There being a pair of stones, as before described, evidently
lying as they were first prostrated, they formed two uprights in front
of the two inner upright taper stones of the inner order, and in
front of the two great standards, and marked the place at the foot
of which the victims of sacrifice were immolated ; and let it be
observed that there is a little impost lying to the east towards the
entrance, between the outer circle of stones and the two interioi
orders ; this small impost is of such inferior dimensions to all the
other remaining im{X)sts which could ever have formed imposts,
either to the outer circle or those of the great inner standards, that
it could not have been one of them.
The dimensions of this small impost are 1 yard, wanting an inch,
between the inner edges of the mortices, which are scooped or
formed more circularly than the mortices of the other imposts appear
to be. The mortices of this small impost are nearly i foot wide at
the mouth or opening, and about i foot or 18 inches within the
extremities of the stone ; so that these dimensions would give a
length of from 7 to b feet. Now if ihese two siones 1 have just
alluded to as the altar wt- re set upright and near together, as each
pair of standards arc, this liitlc siolc would just reach over both, and
86 Stones and Stone Circles.
form a crown or impost to them ; and make a corresponding form or
figure for an altar, similar to the great standards, but very inferior in
size. The little impost is of a hard compact sandstone, of the same
kind with the large upright stones or standards, while the two stones
alluded to are of the dark kind It might be worth while to examine
the end of the two stones, as a tenon or trace of such might be
found, and if it were it would confirm thb conjecture. I imagine
the prostrate stone lying obliquely, and near the leaning standard, to
have fallen outward ; and, if so, a tenon may be discovered at the
end, concealed under the earth. If this little impost is not that of
these two stones, then I cannot conceive in what other part of the
structure it could have had a place. It is too short to leave a space
wide enough between the supporters to pass under, and there appears
nothing corresponding in the whole place, or in what can be collected
from the remnants, to assign it a place, or call for its use otherwise
than as an impost at the altar. To account for its lying apart from
the back of the theatre, or where the two stones are lying, the small-
ness of its size would render it more easily moved than the two
stones, its supposed supporters. If the desecration of the temple
was begun by human hands, of which in my mind there is no doubt,
the altar or place of sacrifice, as the most sacred part, would be that
to which most attention would be directed ; and having thrown down
the altar, the spoilers would attempt to take away the small impost or
crown, though its great size stopped their purpose.
In the spirit of religious zeal, when Christianity began to be intro-
duced, and gained ascendancy, I conceive this temple might have
been an object of vengeance, and it is probable that the first part of
the destruction (whatever time may since have contributed) was the
hand of man, directed by some impulse of viewing it as an abomina-
tion ; and it is possible to conceive, that after the altar was prostrated,
when the first great fallen stone of the standard and its enormous
impost was overthrown, these remains would be left in the state in
which they have been recognised for ages.
I noted the small inner taper stone, on which the great standard at
the back leans or rests, as having a groove from top to base. It is
too regular not to be artificial, and to assign it a use, I suppose it
might serve to lodge a pole or ensign, perhaps the staff of the chief
Druid, that might be fastened by passing a string or thong rolind the
stone ; and hence an idea arises, that the smaller taper stones might
serve to bind or fasten the victims, either of prisoners or cattle, to be
offered for sacrifice. There can be little doubt but they are sunk
very deep, and firmly fixed in the chalk soil. I also noted that in the
second circle, among the taper stones, there appeared some flattish
stones, some of which are in a line with the entrance I have before
noticed ; but there was another at the south, near or under one of
the large outer stones that was thrown down or broken. The dark
Present State of Stonehenge. 87
stones appear of two kinds ; one I believe called a gninstein, and
the other a kind of flinty slate. The small stones, in general, appeared
of the sandstone kind.
Of the two outlying stones in what is called the avenue of approach,
if there were not corresponding standards to make pairs and bear
imposts, which I think was not the case, as there are no remaining
signs of such construction — then, as we must assign a meaning for
what we do find to be in existence in all relics of this kind, it is
reasonable to suppose that these two stones marked the line of
approach ; for, standing at the most distant stone, the bearings of its
north-west side and the side of the prostrate stone just strike the
north-western side or edge of the stone at the eastern side of the
entrance. That some mark or notice of the proper entrance was
requisite, is evident. When we reflect on the nature of the structure,
that it was circular, composed of a course of upright stones similar
to one another, with nearly the same intervals between each, it would
be difficult to distinguish the small difference of the interval assigned
for the entrance ; and it is rational to suppose these stones were
planted to direct the passenger. One stone would not serve to point
direct with sufficient certainty, therefore two were assigned, to serve
as pointers to the proper entrance. The fallen stone has doubtless
been once upright ; this being the position of all the stones of the
structure ; those now prostrate in the temple being evidently disturbed
from their sites. The soil raised about this stone, which gives the
appearance of a kind of vallum or ditch, I consider has arisen from
the removal, at some period or other, of the soil accumulated on the
stone in its fallen state. .... [The remainder of the paper is occu-
pied by " conjectures on the temple."] G. G. V.
P.S. Since the above was written, during the high winds that of
late have prevailed, one of the western standards has been blown
down. [See Note 13.]
Present State of Abury, Wilts.
[1829, Part II., pp. 1-7.]
I fear there is little feeling, where most one would wish to find it,
of the spirit of those lines with which Sir R. C. Hoare concludes his
account of the stupendous remains at Abury [Anc Wilts^ vol. ii-»
p. 89] :
" Ne cuiquam glebam saxumve impun^ movere
Ulli sit licitum ! Parcarum namque seterse
Poense instant ; siquis sacriL scelus edat in a:de :
Finitimi agricolae, et vicini attendite cuncti I
Hie fundus sac<r esto /"
and that his forebodings that the day is rot distant when the anti-
quary shall resort to this place, and hear of its famous temple but as
88 Stones and Stone Circles^
of a thing which once was, may even be accomplished in the present
generation.
With your permission I will relate what I learned on a visit yester-
day; and will add a few observations made on a first personal
inspection of these remains, which may be regarded as supplementary
to the admirable accounts which have been given of them.
The temple at Abury, as few need to be informed, consists of a
level area, nearly circular, enclosed by a deep trench and lofty mound.
The mound is now broken down in four places, where roads are
carried through it But in its original state there seem to have been
only two breaks, the only entrances to the area, and these were at the
nearer extremities of two roads or avenues of more than a mile in
length, and not quite straight, on each side of which were set rows
of laige and lofty stones, in number loo— that is, 400 stones in
all. These avenues are called the Kennet Avenue and the Beck-
hampton Avenue, from the names of two villages near the commence-
ment of them. Scarcely any stones belonging to these avenues remain,
and of a circle at the extremity of one of them not a fragment is now
to be found. We know of them chiefly from the information of
Aubrey and Stukeley, who saw the work when much more entire than
at present The area within the mound has been very accurately
measured by Sir Richard Hoare, and it is found to be somewhat more
than 28 acres. Accompanying the ditch, which, being within the
mound, affords a proof, as has been observed, that it could have been
no place of defence, and near the outer edge of the area, was a circle
of stones, in form and size resembling those of the avenues. Of
these there were just 100, and these form what is called the great or
the outer circle. Within this circle were two small temples, or, if we
may regard the whole works but as one vast temple, two apartments.
Each of these consisted of two concentric circles, composed of stones
like the others, the outer circle consisting of 30 stones, the inner of
12. In the centre of one of these, which is called the Southern
Temple, from its position in respect of the other, was one single stone,
which Stukeley calls the Obelisk. In the centre of the other temple
were three stones standing higher than the rest, placed near together,
and so as to form a small cove or cell Stukeley mentions another
stone, in which he observed a perforation, not belonging to either of
the inner temples, and this he concluded to have been set for the
purpose of securing the victim till the moment of sacrifice arrived.
Such was Abury when it was entire. Before the Norman Conquest
a Christian church was erected, a little without the mound, on the
western side. There is nothing to show when it was erected, but it
is mentioned as existing in Domesday Book. It is worthy of notice
that the church was not erected within the enclosure, which would
seem to have been its natural position : and perhaps it may be
inferred from that circumstance that the persons who erected the
Present State of Abury^ Wilts. 89
church did not contemplate the destruction of the fabric of the older
temple, and intended to raise the Christian edifice on the ruins of one
which had (probably) been used in Pagan superstitions. Some
portions of the fabric of the present church appear to have belonged
to the original edifice, proving that the present church is on the site
originally chosen by Saxon piety.
Another circumstance worthy of notice* in the Domesday account
of Abury b that it was Terra Regis, and that the only land in cultiva-
tion about it was two hides attached to the church, which was held
by one Rainbold the Priest He had the church of Pewsy also. But
at Pewsy we find there was a lay-manor also, while no other manor is
noticed at Abury, but that of the church held immediately of the
King. There was probably some reason why the Crown reserved its
rights here ; and that there was no manor but the manor of the church
may I think be taken as proof of a very early foundation of a Saxon
church here, and that the erection of a church preceded the erection
of any dwellings. Perhaps at the beginning it was a Felbc^pc,
intended for the use of the shepherds and the few inhabitants dispersed
over the plain from the borders of Bishop's Cannings to the borders
of Marlborough, and to a great extent to the northward and southward.
It must have been erected by some person of eminent rank, perhaps
a Saxon sovereign, and not merely (as most of the country churches
were) by some lord of the soil living there, that he might have the
offices of religion brought home to the doors of himself and his
vassals.
Abury remained a place peculiarly ecclesiastical till the Reforma-
tion. Rainbold doubtless held his two hides here only in right of
his church, and they would descend not to his heirs but to his
successors. A foreign house, the Benedictines of St. George of
Bochervile, was placed in the reign of Henry I. in the position in
which Rainbold stood.* The gift of the church was by William de
Tankervile, a person to whom the Crown must have conveyed its
right soon after the date of Domesday, and of whom it may be con-
jectured that he had never any intention of changing the ecclesiastical
character of Abury. The foreign house retained possession of Abury
till the time of Richard II., in which reign many of the foreign houses
were deprived of their English possessions. The patronage and
protection of Abury and its curious remains were then committed,
first to New College, Oxford, and then to the College of Fotherin-
gay ; and it was not till the 2 Edward VL that any private person
had power over this temple to pull down and to destroy, f
• Sec BrittoD's •* Beauties of Wiltshire," vol. iii., p. 270.
t The Roman camp, caUed Templeborough, in Yorkshire, was the property of
the Minster of Roche ; and perhaps it might be found that care was taken by our
ancestors for the preservation of curious remains by keeping them out of private
hands in the original distribution of property. I should like to see this point
further illustrated.
90 Stones and Stone Circles.
In the interval between the Conquest and the Reformation, the
temple at Abury being under the protection of these communities,
perhaps suffered but little from dilapidation. If any Court Rolls of
the ecclesiastical manor now exist, they should be carefully examined;
and I make no doubt that much very interesting matter might be
collected from them. If they contained no notices of grants to the
tenants of portions of the stones, or of land within the area, they
would at least show the number of freeholders, and perhaps of other
tenants, and a guess might be made at the population which had
collected round the church in the middle ages of our history. I
suspect that it was very small, and that the extension of the village
within the bounds of the enclosure has been the work of the three
last centuries. It is manifest that many of the houses are recent
erections : some of them are certainly on new sites, and even those
which are supposed to be re-edifications may be on sites not more
than two or three centuries old. The church is now at the extremity
of the town furthest from the temple.
It has been the extension of this *' vile hamlet," if I may venture to
borrow this expression from one of the indignant letters of Chatterton,
that has proved, and is still proving, the ruin of the temple of Abury.
For some centuries past, whenever stone has been wanted, whether
to build houses or walls, or to pave the roads, the temple was the
ready quarry to which everyone had recourse ; and within the last
two years, three, if not four, of the few remaining stones have been
broken up, and used for no other purpose but to form a kind of wall
to keep up the earth on the right hand side of the road to^winden.
I first entered the town over the fields from Beckhampton. I saw
one or two stones of the Beckhampton avenue as I approached the
church, but nothing of the temple itself, and the first feeling was
something of disappointment ; for the idea I had formed of the
place was, that it was a village among stones, here a cottage, and
there a stone peering upwards high as the roof of the cottage ; and
that the first grand features of the place would be, that a number of
cottagers had built their huts in a magnificent Stonehenge. The
church, and the four houses near it, one of which is a handsome old
hall, with garden and extensive outhouses, appear little different from
an ordinary country village; but proceeding onward the mound
becomes very conspicuous, and seems to promise something extra-
ordinary.
I would, however, rather recommend to any one who should visit
Abury, to approach it, as I afterwards did, by the road from Marl-
borough, which nearly corresponds with the line of the Kennet
avenue, and enters the sacred enclosure by the original opening out
of that avenue. As we approach along that road, a large piece of
the mound presents itself upon us, bending towards the north, over
which may just be discerned the ridges of one or two of the houses
Present State of A bury ^ Wilts . 91
buQt within. The mound, which sweeps to the south, though equally
bold and elevated, is hardly in sight. At a distance, the pinnacles of
the church tower are seen rising above the trees, which here, as in
most of the villages on the Wiltshire Downs, .i^^ thickly planted
amongst the houses. In the foreground is seei, still erect, one of
the stones which formed the Kennet avenue, standing on the left of
the road, encrusted with dark brown, grey, and ochry lichens.
Close to this stone, and at the point where meet the roads from
Marlborough and from Beckhampton, close also to the entrance
within the inclosure, stands a toll-bar house. On entering the
inclosure, four of the stones, still erect, immediately present them-
selves, and they appear to stand at the angular points of a square.
This, however, is soon found to be a deception, for on going up to
them, the two nearest to the mound are found to stand near each
other, and the other two at a considerable distance. Those nearest
to the mound belonged to the great, or outer circle. They may be
called fiat-stones ; being in breadth about 5 yards, and in thickness
about I yard. They stand edge to edge, that is, with the flat sides
towards the interior, and towards the mound, and the curve in which
they stand appears to correspond, as exactly as in so rude a work
could be expected, with the curve of the ditch and mound. The
interstice between them, or what we may call the inter-columniation
of the outer circle, is about %\ yards. I had no means of making an
exact measurement ; but this corresponds well with Stukele3r's account
of the number of stones in the outer circle ; and perhaps a more
accurate admeasurement of the space occupied by these two stones
would afford decisive evidence of the accuracy of Stukeley's report,
that the number of stones in this circle was exactly 100.
Advancing toward the other uprights, we see before us several of
the houses which compose that part of the village which is within
the enclosure. We find that these uprights are flat stones of nearly
the same height and size with those in the outer circle, and like them
standing edge to edge. We discover also three other stones, which
have evidently once belonged to the same arrangement with those
which remain in their original position, but which are lying prostrate
on the ground; and these five stones have evidently been five
adjacent stones of the outer circle of the Southern Temple. Not that
it could be fairly inferred from the present appearance that there was
once a double circle and a central pillar : for of the pillars and the
inner circle not a vestige remains, and these five are all that remain
of the outer circle of this Southern Temple. But the curvature
(though on a first view, when they are seen from the ground by which
I approached them, it appears to be rather that of the fiat side of a
very long ellipse) is soon found to be of a circle of no very great diameter.
All these remain in the state in which they were seen by Sir Richard
Hoarein 1812.
g2 Stones and Stone Circles.
Enter the town, and turn to the right along the principal street, all
within the indosure, till we arrive at an opening through the mound,
the road being continued towards the moor. From the opening by
which we enter, to this opening, the mound is entire. Sycamores and
ashes have been planted on portions of it At this extremity one or
two stones belonging to the outer circle remain. On entering the
field, of which the next portion of the mound b the boundary, two
uprights of the outer circle immediately present themselves, like the
former, and still conforming to the curvature of the mound ; and on
advancing a little further, two others belonging to the same circle
are in sight We also soon perceive two belonging to an inner circle,
and on approaching these a most interesting sight presents itself; two
uprights, taller than the rest, and standing much nearer together, at
an angle of about no degrees. These are two of the three stones
which formed the cove or cell of the Northern Temple. Their very
appearance shows that they were originally something different from
the rest These have lately been placed in very imminent peril
The two just before mentioned belonged to the circles by which the
cove was surrounded; but in 1812, there were four of them, and it
is only within the last two years that this number has been reduced.
I saw the man who destroyed them. He was a labourer employed
on Mr. Naldy's farm, and it was by Mr. Naldy's orders that they were
broken to pieces. The reason was that they stood inconveniently to
him in his husbandry arrangements ; but this reason would press
quite as strongly against the two cove-stones, for they stand in the
midst of his hay-ricks, and may perhaps occasion some little incon-
venience in the piling up or taking down the produce of the farm.
But beside the destruction of two uprights, the same person
acknowledged to having broken to pieces one which had fallen; and
another person in the village told me that two of the prostrate stones,
besides the two uprights, had lately been broken to pieces by
tenants of Mr. Thring of Wilton, of whom Mr. Naldy was one. It
was added that the tenant had received permission from the owner ;
but this may be a mistake. Such an unparalleled remain may be
in little esteem with
"The dull swain,
Who treads on it daily, with his clouted shoon :"
— but something better may be expected where the proprietorship
resides.
There is, however, no replacing them as the Rocking-stone was
replaced ; for they were broken to pieces, and the new wall on the
Swinden road is composed of the fragments.
The labourer employed in the work told roe that the earth had
been examined to the depth of a yard or more, at the foot of the
cove-stones, to see if there were any evidences of sacrifices having
been performed there, but nothing peculiar was observed.
Present Stale of Abury^ Wilts. 93
The road to Swinden is cut through the mound, and at the point
of intersection one of the stones of the great circle is seen, and a
little beyond it others. But here the mound is thickly planted and
enclosed, so that there is not the means of walking along it, and so
continues till we arrive at the next opening, which was the outlet
towards the Beckhampton avenue. The remaining part of the
mound, namely, that between the avenue gates, is in fine preserva-
tion, very bold and elevated ; one or two stones of the outer circle
are seen below, and from this part and this only, there is a view of
Silbury Hill to the south, the apex of which is above the line of
the distant horizon, and of Tan Hill, a natural elevation in the distance.
One or two observations more I must beg permission to make.
The common people of Abury uniformly call these stones " sazzen-
stones." This orthography more correctly represents the sound than
Sarsen-staneSy which occurs in the " Ancient Wiltshire "; but whether
the term is applied exclusively to these, or is common to blocks of
stone like these but in their native beds, I cannot say. .... [The
remainder of the article is speculative.] Joseph Hunter.
Stonehenge and Abury.
[1866, Pari 11.^ pp. 68-7a]
I have long held the opinion that much light could be thrown
upon the meaning and object of our Wiltshire megalithic temples —
Stonehenge and Abury — by a careful study of their ground-plan ; and
in fact, that the ground-plans of these temples present figures traced
upon the turf by ranks of stones, similar in outline to figures which
occur elsewhere carved on stone.
The symbols represented by Abury consist, or rather consisted, of
a snake — a large circle and two smaller concentric inner circles, all
of which are Buddhistic emblems — the double circles forming one
of the symbols of the Pra-Pafha^ or divine footprint of Buddha,
and indicating the power he possesses to punish the wicked in both
worlds. Similar forms, the snake and the concentric circles, occur
upon those sculptured stones in Scotland which have been connected
by some writers with the worship of Buddha at a remote period in
that country. Indeed, upon one monolith, that associated with the
Newton Stone (Aberdeenshire), the very ground-plan of our temple
at Abury is delineated with but slight variation.
Silbury Hill may have been reared as a huge lingam, and was,
perhaps, to the rest of the temple what these sculptured stones them-
selves were to the figures carved upon their surface, for the whole
plan of Abury is upon such a gigantic scale that even such an
enormous monolith as that at Lockmariaker would have been dwarfed
by the magnitude of the other details.
There Is at Abury a flat ledge, or path, about 12 feet wide, which
94 Stones and Stone Circles.
projects from the vallum about midway between it and the ditch ;
this path, it has been suggested, formed a seat for spectators during
the celebration of religious rites. But as the only form of worship
observed by the Buddhists of Bhotan is a mere solemn slow tramp-
ling or stamping with their feet a certain number of times in exactly
the same line around the shrine of Buddha, whilst the I^mas of
Thibet consider that their ceremonial circumambulation of holy
places must be performed in a smooth even line, the least deviation
from which would vitiate their devotion and destoy its merit, as
this is so, may not the path at Abury also have served for some kind
of sacred circumambulation ?
The emblems at Stonehenge, as regards their ground-plan, consist
of a horseshoe within a circle. These emblems are each represented
twice ; once in monoliths of primary rock, and once in trilithons of
tertiary sandstone (sarsens). The horseshoe is still the conventional
figure for the yoni in modern Hindoo temples, and although its
original import was lost, yet, until lately, the horseshoe was held to be
a charm against witchcraft and the evil eye amongst ourselves, pre-
cisely as was the case with the more unmistakable Shelah na-Gig at
certain churches in Ireland.
Aubrey states (upon the authority of Philip, Earl of Pembroke)
that a stone was carried away to St James's from the centre of Stone-
henge. Could this have been the sacred monolith (lingam), the
Silbury Hill of Stonehenge ? This feature alone is wanting to render
the ground-plan of Stonehenge an exact counterpart of that of
modern ling-yoni temples of the Buddhists.
Colonel Forbes Leslie (** Early Races of Scotland ") points out
that in the Dekkan circular monolithic temples exist, still used for the
worship of Vetal, the relative positions of certain stones in which
agree in a remarkable manner with those at Stonehenge ; thus the
monolith known as the '' Friar's Heel," at Stonehenge, which stands
outside the circle, and to the east of it, has its counterpart in these
temples. The resemblance may be traced also in the central group
of trilithons at Stonehenge facing the east, with three lesser stones
placed immediately in front of them^ and inside the circle. In the
description given by Colonel Forbes Leslie of a temple near Poonah,
the principal group of monoliths is said to face the east, and to
have in front of them^ and inside the circle^ three stones of lesser
size. The same author mentions a temple on the table-land of the
Ghauts, in the Mahratta country, in which the stones present that
general obelisk form which is borne by the monoliths at Stonehenge,
and particularly by those forming the inner horseshoe there. The
avenue at Stonehenge is from the east, and is bounded by banks of
earth ; in the Indian temple last named, two avenues of stone lead
up to it from the east. It may also be added that the stone of
entrance at Abury is placed at the east of the great circle.
Stonehenge and A bury. 95
Both Abury and Stonehenge were probably connected with that
primitive or priapian form of worship which appears to have been co-
extensive with the migrations of the human race — a form of worship
which existed among all the nations of antiquity with which we are
acquainted, which was transmitted to mediaeval times, is still ram-
pant as in the worship of Siva at Benares, or lingers on in the
wearing of amulets and the like, as in Italy at the present day. Traces
of this form of the worship of the creative power of nature, of a
more or less degraded character, crop out in the New no less than in
the Old World, may be found existing in scattered islands, or
wherever man has set his foot.
I do not venture to assign the period of the construction of Stone-
henge and Abury to a stone, a bronze, or an iron age. It does not,
however, necessarily follow, because the monoliths at Abury are
unjvroughty that therefore the wrought stone temple of Stonehenge
must have been erected at a later ethnological period, or by a
people who possessed tools of harder material and of better con-
struction.
As a modern instance that people unacquainted with the use of
metal did carve the hardest stone, I would mention the well-known
" Heitiki '* figures of green jade made by the New Zealanders. The
sculptured granite of Brittany again proclaims what has been done
with stone tools. Take, for example, the immense quantity and the
elaborate nature of the carving in the dolmen at Gavr'inis, where
delineations of stone axes themselves occur ; and as bearing upon
the subject of the present letter — the serpent, the horseshoe, and the
circle. Other dolmens — such as Mannd-erhrofeg — when opened,
were found to contain numerous stone axes of exquisite workman-
ship ^ whilst the granite structures themselves bear the sculptured
representations of stone axes. One wedge-shaped axe in its handle,
which occurs upon the roofing slab of the Table de C^sar (Lock-
mariaker), appeared to me to have been actually traced in outline
from the object itself. The carved stone idols at Copan and other
places in Central America appear to have been executed without
the use of metal. Whilst it is scarcely too much to add that, prior
to European influence, America was in its stone and copper^ rather
than in its bronze age ; and yet with such tools the hardest stone
has been carved into spirited representations of men, animals, and
birds by the mound- builders of Ohio , whilst the labour displayed in
carving the stone tables found at Chiriqui into the form of animals
from the solid block is perfectly astonishing.
The objects from Chiriqui and Ohio which I have named are
passing almost daily through my hands ; and if these were executed
with copper tools, or, at the most, with bronze tools containing but
a small percentage of tin, there can be no reason for assigning the
construction of Stonehenge to a people acquainted with the use of
96 Stones and Stone Circles.
iron, because of the supposed impossibility of accompIishii\g the
work with tools of stone or bronze.
I am, eta Edward T. Stevens.
Avebury and Silbury HilL
[1866, Part L, pp. 683-686.]
Your readers are probably aware that a controversy has been going
on, during several weeks, in the pages of the Athenteum, as to the
epoch to which Stonehenge, Avebury, and Silbury Hill are to be
assigned. It has been maintained by Mr. Fergusson, by whom the
discussion was originated, that these remarkable monuments are all
of post-Roman date, and were probably created during the fifth or
sixth centuries ; whilst Sir John Lubbock, who represents the more
generally received views of English antiquaries, assigns them all to a
pre-Roman period of uncertain date.
I am content, as regards Stonehenge, to accept the arguments of
Sir John Lubbock in favour of the antiquity of that celebrated spot,
and shall refrain on the present occasion from offering any further
remarks in regard to it. But the questions raised by Mr. Fergusson,
in respect to Avebury and Silbury Hill, do not seem to me to have
received any adequate reply ; and as the subject appears to demand
longer and more complete notice than the narrow space of the
columns of the Aihenceum will allow, I am desirous to place on record
in the pages of the GentUnian^s Magazine some remarks in regard
to it. [See Note 14.]
With many others in this county, I have followed the discussion
with great interest. Sir John Lubbock appears to me to have met
the most important points of Mr. Fergusson's argument : though some-
thing still seems to be expected from those who live near the re-
markable sites which form the subject of controversy. Professor
Tyndall's brief but suggestive note, in the number of the Athen(Pum
for February 17, induces me to make a few observations on the rela-
tions of the Roman road to Silbury Hill ; and affords at the same
time an opportunity of referring to the Anglo-Saxon Charters, which
were relied on in Mr. Fergusson's first letter (Dec. 22, 1865, p. 888),
as evidence in favour of his extraordinary opinions as to the origin of
the megalithic remains at Avebury there maintained.
I. Professor Tyndall's opinion that Silbury Hill afforded a "splendid
landmark " to the Roman engineers, seems most just As the Roman
military roads were carried in a straight, or nearly straight, line from
place to place, it is evident that such a road between Cunetio and
Aquae Solis must of necessity traverse the country very near where
Silbury Hill stands. Its having been carried so close to the base (or
site of the base) of the ancient mound, as all in different degrees
admit, seems to have arisen from the topographical necessities of the
Avebury and SUbury HilL 97
case. To have carried the road to the north would have led into a
much more difficult line of country, over the very summit of Oldbury,
remote from the one easy descent over the western escarpment of the
Downs, at Morgan's Hill, where the celebrated junction of the road
and Wansdyke is found. To have carried it even a very little further
to the south, would have led to the spot where the river Kennet,
flowing from the north, makes an abrupt turn to the east, and too
near to the bed of the river, which here winds through water-meadows
of considerable extent, even now subject to be flooded ; and which
were probably much more so in Roman times.
The Roman engineers took the best line which was open to them ;
carrying their road down the side of Overton Hill, a very little to the
norUi of the present village of West Kennet, and so along the southern
flank of Waden Hill, very much in the line of the modern road. It
was thus possible to cross the valley of the Kennet at its narrowest
point, by fording the river near the site of the present bridge, a very
little to the east of Silbury, and on its south side. As regards this
eastern portion of the road, the evidence for any deflection to the
south, in order to avoid the great tumulus, does not appear to me
satisfactory, nor is any such deflection ^hown either in the Ordnance
map or in the four maps and plans by Crocker, in the second volume
of Sir Richard Hoare's " Ancient Wiltshire," in which the road is
laid dowa On the contrary, at this point, the eastern division of
the road must, I think, have approximated to, rather than receded
from, the base of the mound, and to have done so for two reasons.
First, to obtain as easy an ascent as might be over the skirt of the
jutting eminence on which the hill stands ; and secondly, to effect a
junction, by "a very obtuse angle," with the western division of the
road. But for such approximation, the eastern and western divisions
could not, in my view, have united at the foot of Silbury, but must
have been carried on as parallel lines.
Rickman, we know, was of opinion that the fact of the road being
carried over the jutting eminence referred to, and not along the de-
pression or cutting between the present road and the mound, is proof
that the latter did not exbt when the road was made. To have done
this, however, would have involved carrying the way into the exca-
vated meadow, subject to inundations; and the ascent which the
road does make is £iur too trivial to have received any such considera-
tion from a Roman engineer.
Turning to the remains of the road still to be seen to the west of
Silbury, in the open fields to the south and east of the village of
Beckhampton, everyone will admit that it points direct to the hilL
It " seems," says Sir Richard Hoare, *' to have taken Silbury Hill for
its bearing, but to have made a slight deviation from the straight line
in order to avoid it" ("Roman ^Era," 1819, p. 89); or, as Dean
Merewether observed (1849), ^^ *^ would have cut the hill at one-third
VOL. VI. 7
98 Stones and Stone Circles.
of its base, had not its course been deflected.'* Now it must be
admitted that the appearance of a road being directed straight to any
given object b very fallacious, if judged of even at the moderate dis-
tance of half a mile. In order to say that there has been a deflection
to avoid such object, we must be able to trace the road almost up to
it That a deflection did occur in this instance, and the method by
which it was accomplished, have aheady been intimated in describing
the maimer in which the eastern portion of the road joins the western
on the south side of the foot of Silbury. Minute observations in
support of this deflection have been mside, not only by Sir John
Lubbock and Professor Tyndall, but also by those resident on the
spot, whose evidence Mr. Fergusson seems to demand.
I must here quote the remarks of the Hon. Secretary of our Wilts
Archaeological Society, the Rev. A. C Smith, by whom we are fur-
nished with another *' differential test," not less valuable, perhaps, than
the growing clover or ripening wheat Mr. Smith, who lives close by,
at Yatesbury, tells us :
''I have very carefully examined the ground, and followed the
road over and over again, at all seasons of the year, but more especi-
ally in winter at the beginning of a thaw, when the snow which is
melted from the surrounding fields clings somewhat longer to the old
road, and marks its course most unmbtakably. And I have the
strong corroborative testimony of Mr. Pinniger, through whose land
at Beckhampton the road runs, and who, living on the spot, has con-
tinual opportunities of observation at all seasons, that the crops of
com ripening somewhat earlier on the track of the Roman road than
in the surrounding fields, marks its course just before harvest very
dearly. Now at both these seasons we can trace the old road much
nearer to Silbury than at any other time of the year : and the testi-
mony of all those who have had their attention called to it, agrees in
afi&rming that the road runs straight for Silbury, but afterwar(& turns
southward to avoid it''*
II. In the course of the discussion no one has referred to the
Anglo-Saxon Charters, on which Mr. Fergusson relies so much for
the support of his opmions. These, it will be remembered, are —
first, ''that Avebury was nothing more than a burying-place ;"
secondly, that, like other parallel lines of stones, it was "a full-sized
plan of a battle, lithographed on the field where it was fought ;" and
thirdly, that "Silbury Hill was raised to commemorate " a battle,
probably "Arthur's twelfth and last great battle of Badon Hill," in
which the South Saxons, Mr. Fergusson thinks, aided those of
Wessex ; and in which, he believes, Cissa, their king, was slain. The
first of these Charters (Na 1120 of the Codex Diplomaticus), un-
doubtedly refers to the parish of Overton, which immediately adjoins
that of Avebury. That Avebury, however, was included in this
* Wilis Archaological Magazine^ vol. vii., p. 183.
Avebury and Silbury Hill. 99
manor, as Mr. Fergusson states, there is no evidence. The descent
of the manors of Avebury and of the two Overtons is well known,
and is traced, more or less fully, in the notes to " Aubrey's Collec-
tions," by Canon Jackson (p. 330) ; and in " Domesday for Wilt-
shire," by the Rev. W. H. Jones (p. 228). Avebury was Terra
Regis at the time of the Conquest ; and the eastern part of Overton
was at the same time held by the Bishop of Winchester, from whom
it has descended to the Duke of Marlborough and others ; while the
western portion was held by the Abbess of Wilton, and is now the
property of her representative, the Earl of Pembroke. The late
Mr. J. M. Kemble has led Mr. Fergusson into error with regard to
this charter. Mr. Kemble has correctly identified the manor, the
boundaries of which are appended to the charter, with our Overton ;
but he has erroneously referred it to that comprised in the western part
of the parish, whilst it really appertains to the eastern (** Archaeo-
logical Journal," voL xiv., p. 133). I was some years since induced
to compare closely the boundaries appended to this charter with
those given in another (No. 571), for the adjacent manor of West
Overton, and likewise with the names of places in the Ordnance and
other maps, including the large parish maps of East and West
Overton and East Kennet, to which I was allowed access. As the
boundaries of the two manors — on the east side of the one, and on
the west side of the other — are conterminous, I was able, by inquiry
on the spot, to identify, to a great extent, the ancient boundaries with
the actual localities. The result was my conviction that most of
Kemble's identifications were erroneous ; of which I believe I was
able to satisfy the Rev. W. H. Jones, who was good enough to
accompany me over the ground. As to the addendum to the
boundaries to this charter, in regard to *' pastures and down land at
Mapplederlea Westward," nothing could be made out, after the
strictest local inquiry ; and Mr. Kemble himself says, *' I do not
know whether there is any place called Maple Durley in the neigh-
bourhood." It is in this addendum, however, that there is mention
of a " stone-row," and of burial-places (" byrgelsas "), the former of
which Mr. Kemble, without evidence, connects with the Kennet
avenue ; but which, judging from other charters {e.g.<^ Nos. 452, 1080),
was probably a row of boundary stones, such as are now seen on the
downs. The " Hackpen " of this charter can hardly be Haca's pen^
cr enclosure ; or, as Mr. Kemble would have us believe, "the stone
ring " of Avebury ; but must be the well-known hill of that name, the
highest point of these downs, a mile to the north- east. There are
other Hackpen hills, in Devonshire and Berkshire, in places where
there are no stone circles. Mr. J. M. Kemble was a very learned
Anglo-Saxon scholar, and an able antiquary; but Homer himself
may be found napping at times, and we can only infer from his
attempt at the identi^cation of these boundaries, that he had not
7—2
lOo Stones and Stone Circles.
acquired the local knowledge requisite for its due accomplish-
ment
As to Charter No. 1094, Mr. Fei^gusson again takes his indications
from Kemble, who says : " In this Charter we have ' Cissan beorh,'
or Cissa's barrow, in the neighbourhood of Overton, in Wiltshire.
As far as I know, this name was only borne by one person, namely
the son of JE\\\^ the founder of the kingdom of Sussex, and it is
possible that this was his burial-place, if, as is very likely, he fell in a
fray against the British ; indeed, it is not impossible that the Overton
mentioned is in Hampshire, not Wiltshire. And then we may
assume that Cissa perished in a battle with his West Saxon neigh-
bours." (Loc dt.^ p. 129.) All this, it must be admitted, is most un-
satisfactory. Two vague suggestions are thrown out, when in truth
there b nothing but conjecture in favour of either. Cissa, the second
King of the South Saxons, is a prince of whom we know very little,
except that he gave his name to his capital, Cissanceaster (Chichester).
It requires no profound knowledge of Anglo-Saxon to perceive that
this charter (as well as Nos. 603 and 1092), does not refer to the
Overton near Avebury, but to Overton in Hampshire, not far from
Basingstoke ; all the other places named in it — ^Tadley, Waltham,
and Bradley — being by Kemble himself, in his " Index of Places,"
assigned to places so called in Hampshire. These charters, of
which there are several, are of the time of Edward the Elder,
c A.D. 910, and refer to the possessions of the see of Winchester,
which were afresh secured to that see by the King, at the instance of
the Bishop Frithestan.* Cissa is not a name peculiar to the South
Saxon King (Flor. Wigorn. a.d. 714); and the barrow named in
this charter, there can be little doubt, took its name from some other
Cissa ; there is, at least, no evidence of its being that of the King.
We thus see that there is no mention whatever of the barrow of any
Cissa at our Wiltshire Overton ; and so the argument for the death
of Cissa, King of the South Saxons, at '* the battle of Avebury," if
indeed such a battle were ever fought, entirely falls to the ground.
III. I may inform your readers, that during the past autumn, ex-
cavations, such as Mr. Fergusson suggests, were made by members
of the Wilts Archaeological Society, within the area of the two inner
circles at Avebury. I was unable to be present, but I learned from
my friends, Mr. Smith and Mr. Cunnington, that nothing, beyond a
few bones of animals and some fragments of coarse pottery, was
found. The negative evidence thus obtained is opposed to the
sepulchral theory which has been so much pressed of late years.
I am permitted by Mr. Smith to append his note of the excava-
tions, as follows :
" Our diggings lasted a week. We thoroughly trenched across the
* The Bishop of Winchester is still lord of the manors and patron of the livings
of Overton, Tadley and North Waltham.
Avebury and Silbury Hill. loi
centre of the inner southern circle, examined the centre of the
northern circle, dug a number of holes and trenches in various parts
of the area, and made a large opening, besides various smaller ones
in other parts, into the great mound which surrounds the whole. We
found a few pieces of British pottery, a great many animal bones —
horse, ox, and sheep, but not a fragment of human bone, I have pre-
pared a flill account of these diggings, which will appear in a future
number of the * Wilts Archaeological Journal.* "
Having examined the fragments of bone and pottery obtained in the
course of these excavations, I ought perhaps to state that among the
latter, some of which are ancient British, are many pieces of well-fired
Roman-British pottery, not differing from those obtained froa» well-
known Roman sites. Though with well-modelled rims and mould-
ings, they are of a coarse description, and are, probably, portions of
vessels which had been used for culinary purposes. The discovery
of Romati pottery within the circles of Avebury may, perhaps, show
that it was a place of resort in Roman times, as was indeed to have
been expected ; but by no means proves that these megalithic circles
were erected at so late a period.
I have trespassed too> long on your space, but it is difficult to
write concisely on topographical subjects, where everything depends;
on exactitude of detail.
I am, etc. John Thhrnam, M.D.,, F.SiA.
Brandrith CraggSi.
[17%^ Part L, p. 2f^^
Hearing some time ago, the above-mentioned appelUition given to
a ridge of rocks, situated on a mountain, overlooking a deep vale;
about half-way betwixt Knaresbrough and Shipton, I was led to sup-
pose the place had once been appropriated to Druidical superstition,
in name manifestly implying the *' fire circle." A small village also,
at 2 miles distance, evidently takes its name from hence, being
called " Few Stone.'* On coming to the place, I found it answer
every description my ideas had formed of it On the highest part of
one of these rocks is a smooth, regular, well-wrought bason, formed-
out of the solid stone, 2 feet in depth, and 3^ feet in diameter. On each
side of this is a smaller bason formed, each on a prominent point of
the rock. A few yards from hence is a rocking stone, the irregularity
of the figure making it difficult to ascertain the weight exactly ; yet
it may be reasonably supposed to weigh near 20 tons, and so equally
poised, as to be moved with ease by one hand.
Rocking stones are found in many parts of this island; some
ascribed to nature alone, and others to art Rock basons are not so
common : they are found in some parts of Cornwall ; but very few.
of them are mentioned to have been found in any other part of this
102 Stones and Stone Circles.
country. Should any of your readers be able to throw some light on
the original invention and use of them, it would, without doubt, be
very agreeable to the studious investigators of British antiquities.
K H.
The Devil's Arrows near Burrowbridge.
[1790, PartlL^p, 1081.]
I have sent you a view and separate representation, taken on the
spot, of three stones near Burrowbridge, Yorkshire, commonly called
*' The Devil's Arrows " (Plate iiL, figs, i, 2), and generally supposed
to be British deities. (Some author, which I think is Camden,* in
his *' Britannia," says there are four,t and that the other is in the
market-place, which must be a mistake, or the account taken by hear-
say, as the one standing in the market-place is the remains of a
fluted column which, I think, is of the Doric order. They are
placed in a direct line in some fields, near the town ; and on inquiry
could hear of no other.) A road runs between them, as is represented
in the view, fig. i ; their distances from each other being, from the
first to the second, 1 24 paces ; from the second to the third, 70 paces.
The stones are natural, having seen some of the kind and grain in
quarries. Fig. 2 is a representation of the same, drawn separately,
but on the same scale. The highest is about 24 feet, so that the
dimensions of the others may be readily determined. They bear the
marks of the greatest antiquity, being worn away on the top apparently
by length of time and the rain, which has made those furrows down
the sides, as is evidently seen by the perpendicular tendency of them.
The ground round each is sunk-in to a small depth. Should any of
your intelligent correspondents throw any light when, by whom, or on
what occasion they were erected, I shall be much obliged ; and at
some future time may send you other drawings.
Yours, etc T. H.
*»* We are much obliged to our correspondent for his offer of
future drawings, and have engraved the present on account of its
representing the present state of these stones, which have already
been engraved in Dr. Gale's " Commentary on Antonine's Itinerary,"
p. 16 ; and also in Mr. Drake's "History of York," p. 26.
[1790, Part Il.f p. 1 196.]
Some few years ago I visited the upright pillars near Boroughbridge,
engraven in p. 1081. They are nearly in a right line ; and a fourth,
I was told, had then been lately destroyed. Two of them are about
5 feet square, by 22 or 23 feet high, and the other is 7 feet 3 inches
square, and perhaps 15 feet high; but the height was measured only
* Not Camden certainly. See " Britannia," iii. 9, 58. More probably some
modern tourist,
t He adds, "The fourth was lately thrown down."
The Devirs Arrows near Burrowbridge. 103
by the eye. They were covered with moss. I broke off a piece or
two, and immediately set it down a composition of sand and mortar :
but I afterwards found that this apparent mortar or cement would not
effervesce with acids. My first conclusion, I apprehend, was too
hasty ; and, from further observation, I am now convinced they are
a kind of granite or quartz. Yours, etc. W. M.
Remains in Yorkshire.
[1831, PartIL,p. 456.]
Mr. Cole, of Scarborough, lately discovered in the vicinity of the
village of Cloughton, a Druidical Circle. It is about 12 yards in
diameter, having the altar-stone remaining, and is in the direction
bearing north-north-east from the Wharton Circle. Its site is in a
vale, called Hulley's Slack, and near it flows a clear spring of water.
It is bounded by the plantation denominated Lind Ridge or Rigs, on
the opposite elevation.
A discovery of ancient stone coffins has lately been made in the
interior of some cairns on the farm of Mountberiot, parish of Money-
die. They are supposed to be the remains of some Druidical priests,
as ruins of many of their places of worship are in this neighbourhood,
or the ashes of some of their victims sacrificed at their feasts.
Some Observations on Certain supposed Druidical
Remains in the County of York.
[1839, Part Lt pp. 133-140-]
In many of your former numbers the attention of your readers has
been drawn to the subject of Druidism, and the investigation of the
numerous interesting relics usually ascribed to the Druids in different
parts of the island. I am now induced to call their attention to
some works of this kind in this part of the kingdom, which have
survived the lapse of ages, though many have fallen under the
destructive ravages of time, and the yet more destructive hand of
violence. It must be regarded as highly desirable to rescue from
oblivion the little that now remains of these primaeval works, and
if (as appears probable) they are doomed to further destruction,
from agricultural innovation, or other causes, still let it be reserved
for your pages to transmit to posterity some account of these
memorials of the primitive faith of our forefathers. Another reason,,
also, which has influenced me in the selection of this subject is the
contiguity of (what was within the memory of man) a rocking stone,
in the neighbourhood of the site of the ancient Cambodunum, and
which appears to me, in some measure, to account for the choice of
such a spot for the establishment of a Roman town, as it is clearly
shown to have been one of the first objects of these conquerors to
uproot the religion of the vanquished Britons ; for, so long as the
Druids retained their influence, they had nothing to expect but
I04 Stones and Stone Circles.
continued revolt Tacitus, in describing the conquest of Anglesey,
says, *' the island fell, and a garrison was retained to keep it in sub-
jection. The religious groves dedicated to superstition and barbarous
rites were levelled to the ground. In these recesses the natives
imbued their hands with the blood of their prisoners." The rocking-
stone in the neighbourhood of Huddersfield b surrounded by a large
tract of moorland, which retains the British appellation of Chat or
Coit or Wood Moss, affording a sufficient proof that this part of
the country was part of an immense wood, and probably continued
so till nearly the time of the Norman Conquest Within the
memory of man, immense trunks of trees have been found in this
heathy tract But before I proceed to the more immediate object of
this essay, permit me to caution your readers against a mistake
which has not unfrequently been made, in considering all basin-like
cavities in rocks as the work of art, whereas such appearances have
been seen where there is not the least vestige of Druidical occupancy.
Every one, in the least conversant with geology, has repeatedly noticed
such partial excavations in rocks of a certain description, arising
solely from a slight partial decomposition of the rock, and a gradual
lodgment of water. Sometimes the whole surface of a rock from
this cause will present a honeycomb appearance, or is worked into
small basins.
The size and shapes of these cavities vary according to the nature
of the rock; but in the hardest rocks there is reason to believe
that where once there is a breach in the surface capable of re-
taining water, decomposition proceeds, which may in the lapse <^
centuries produce circular or. elliptical cavities, such as have been
mistaken for the work of art The moors bordering on the Vale of
Todmorden present to the view vast assemblages of massy rock, and
among these we find one perhaps resembling a pillar, another a
cromlech ; yet on a careful examination of these wild disorderly
masses, it is impossible to doubt that, with respect to many at least,
they are the work of nature. It is easy to be led away by a warm
imagination to conjure up ideal phantasies ; but though it is exceed-
ingly probable that this romantic spot was the resort of our Druid-
icfd ancestors, yet there is hardly a single rock that can with
anything like certainty be pronounced the work of art It is not
improbable, I admit, that some of them may have undeigone some
artificial change, in which case the marks of the iron instrument are
obliterated by the lapse of ages ; but, if that is the case, the work-
manship was of a rude nature, such as might have been exercised in
the infancy of society. The marks of the iron instrument are still
visible in the knobs and cavities of the trilithons at Stonehenge.*
Some perforations, that are said to have been visible in many of
* From the circumstance of the stones at Stonehenge being wrought with a
tool (a defilement prohibited by the Hebrew Lawgiver, and never instanced in the
Druidical Remains in Yorkshire. 105
the stones at Todmorden, seem to countenance the position that
they were designed for the performance of some superstitious rite.
The pillar in the earliest times was a stone no larger than what a
man might carry to its destined spot, as in Jacob's Bethel, and the
Gilgal of Joshua; yet stones that one man could carry to any
place, and another might carry away, we find undisturbed for ages.
This shows that the practice was a general one, and of long standing.
It indicates, too, the inviolable sanctity attached to such pillars. But
in time the larger pillars came into use, as indicative of a higher
degree of dignity. Thus the pillar near the oak at Shechem, in the
vicinity of which the Israelites were assembled by Joshua, is noticed
as a great stone j* and the altar erected by the tribe of Reuben and
of Gad on the banks of Jordan, is said to be a " a great altar to see
to." The groups of stones set up by the Israelites were twelve in
number, according to the number of their tribes, whereas those of
the Canaanites were not confined to that number. The pillars and
altars erected by the Patriarchs were dedicated to the service of
Jehovah, but those by the Canaanites were devoted to idol worship,
and their altars erected to BaaL In this island there are still stand-
ing rude pillars, some of stupendous size. There is one of this class
at Rudstone, in this county. The well-known Brimham
Rocks, in this county, probably owe their extraordinary aspect to some
convulsion of nature [see ante^ p. 53] ; but it is quite clear that either
the Druids, or some earlier occupants, availed themselves of these
stupendous works of nature for the performance of their superstitious
rites. In the Cannon Rocks (as they are called) there are various
perforations, through which it is supposed the priests delivered their
oracular responses. There are here also a great number of tumuli
spread over the ground, resembling those at Stonehenge, which is
not the case at Todmorden, and some of the immense rocks vibrate
upon a pivot, like the logan stones of Cornwall Mr. Hargrave, the
historian of Knaresborough, mentions a Rock Idol, 46 feet in cir-
cumference, which rests on a pedestal of only i foot by 2 feet
7 inches. Though no tree is to be seen within half a mile of the
place, yet, on digging among these rocks, roots, and trunks of oaks,
and other trees have been found. This circumstance harmonizes
exactly with our views of Druidical worship, for it is asserted by
Pliny, in speaking of the Druids, " Jam per se roborum eligunt
lucos, fuque ulla sacra sine ed fronde confidunt^*
The next example of reputed Druidical remains in this county, which
I shall describe, is to be found in Saddleworth. There is a lofty
Druidical remains) does it not seem likely that Stonehenge is not of a like nature,
or for the same object as the rude unhewn rocks and pillars erected as places of
worship in so many spots? Some of the Todmorden rocks resemble pillars of the
latter description.
* Jobhua xxiv. 26.
io6 Stones and Stone Circles,
hill, called by the neighbouring people Pots and Pans. Upon its
summit are abundance of craggy stones scattered up and down,
which, when viewed from the east, look like the foundation or
ruins of some stupendous fabric. One of these stones, or rather
two of them, closely joined together, is called the Pancake. It
has upon its surface four basins hollowed in the stone, the largest,
being nearly in the centre, is capable of holding 8 or lo gallons ;
but it is not possible to ascertain whether these hollows are artificial
or natural. This stone is about 76 feet in circumference ; another
long uneven hole upon this stone is called Robin Hood's Bed. A
httle westward of this is another stone, about 20 feet in height, and
about 56 feet in circumference at the base, but much narrower at the
top, from whence proceed irregular flutings or ridges down one side,
of about 2 feet long, by some supposed the effect of time, and by
others the workmanship of art More westward, and nearer the
valley of Greenfield, the ground is called Alderman's, and overlooks
that valley, opposite to a large and high rock called Alphian. Upon
the level of this ground is a fissure in the earth, about 12 or 14 yards
long, each end terminating in a cavernous hole in the rock, one of
which is capable of admitting dogs, foxes, or sheep : the other large
enough to receive men. Neither of these caverns has been thoroughly
explored by anyone within memory.* One person who went into
the larger with a light, returned after having gone down a sloping
descent of about 60 yards. Tradition says, into the other hole, once
went a dog in full chase after a fox, but neither of them ever returned
Similar stone basins have been found upon the common, some miles
distant, and in their neighbourJiood a stone celt It was conjectured by
the gentleman to whom I am indebted for this account, that the
large upright stone, about 20 feet in height, was an idol once here
worshipped ; around it are many very large stones, lying in all
directions. Probably the form of the stone was not unlike the
Phoenician pillars before alluded to. There were holes in the
stone, that countenanced the supposition that it was used for the
purpose of Pagan deception. At Mow Cop also is a rude upright
pillar, called the Old Man at Mow, and believed by the country
people to have been an idol, once the object of worship. It is
needless to add that the British word Maen signifies a stone, and
that the prefix "old" or ** elder," is merely a Saxon epithet to
denote its antiquity. As for the large and high rock now called
Alphian, I suppose it to be of Hebrew or Phoenician origin, viz.,
from ^X Deus, and PUS a hill, or hill idol, dedicated to the worship
* This is an extract from an account of these rocks written fifty years ago. Since
that time demolition has been at work, and what time has spared has been
wantonly injured. Many of these large and ponderous stones have been removed
by crows and levers, for the purpose of trying how far they would tumble. Thus
we find the hand of violence uniting with the devouring teeth of time, determined
scarcely to leave one stone upon another upon this once sacred ground.
Druidical Remains in Yorkshire. 107
of the sun. For Servius, speaking of Belus, the Phoenician, affirms,
'* all in those parts (about Phoenicia) worship the sun, who in their
language b'called Hel ;" and again he says, " God is called Hal in
the Punic or Carthaginian tongue." The first day of May was a
great annual festival observed by the Druids in honour of the sun.
On this day prodigious fires were kindled in all their sacred places,
and on the tops of all their cairns, and many sacrifices were offered
to that glorious luminary, which now began to shine upon them with
great warmth and lustre. Of this festival, there are still some vestiges
remaining both in Ireland and in the Highlands of Scotland, where
the first of May is called Beltein, or the fire of Bel
In various parts of the West Riding of Yorkshire, there are large
rocks, some of a curious shape, to which tradition has assigned
extraordinary sanctity ; but as mankind in all ages has been swayed with
the love of the marvellous, it is probable that many of these traditions
have no better foundations than the fears or superstitious credulity
of the inhabitants. Yet, if we reject every instance of this sort where
positive evidence is not attainable, such scepticism would invalidate
the truth of many circumstances which we have been accustomed to
regard as indubitable facts. Among the number of these curious
remains in this neighbourhood, I shall briefly record a few of the
more prominent instances ; and in doing so it is necessary to remind
the reader, that the innovations of the last century have done more
to destroy these venerable remains than twice ten hundred years
before. I have already alluded to the celebrated rocking-stone which
forms the boundary betwixt the two townships of Golcar and Slath-
waite, and which has from the earliest ages given the name of Holy-
stone to the adjacent moor. This stone is 10^ feet long, containing
nearly 6 cubits Druidical measure, 9 feet 4 or 5 inches broad, con-
taining nearly 5 cubits, and 5 feet 3 inches thick, answering to 3 cubits,
or thereabout. Its weight is above 18 tons. Like other rocking-
stones, it rests on so small a pedestal, that at one particular point it
may be made to rock, though it sustained some damage many years
ago from the wanton interference of some masons, who endeavoured
to throw it from its centre, in order to discover the principle on
which so large a weight was made to move. It is said, also, that
some time during the last century, a large mass of this rock was
broken off, and used for the purposes of masonry. There is a spring
of water near this rock, and a passage underneath the rock, which, if
cleared, is said to be large enough to admit the body of a man,
through which the water Rows, and where the timid hare sometimes
flies for shelter. The earliest records relating to this district, give us
to understand that this spot has been regarded as sacred, and the
rock itself to have given name to the adjacent township (Godleyscar,
corrupted into Golcar). How far this is true, some future investiga-
tions may probably elicit, but it is not improbable, that if this rock
io8 Stones and Stone Circles.
be (as 18 supposed) a Dniidical remain, the first converts to Chris-
tianity in this part of the district may have received the rite of
baptism at the contiguous spring; and, that before edifices
of pubhc worship were known in this district, the primitive
Christians assembled here on stated occasions to celebrate a
more costly sacrifice than the blood of beasts, and to sing the
wonders of Redeeming love.* It has before been stated that this
rocking-stone is close to the site of the ancient Cambodunum. In
digging for fence stone (in the "eald fields," as they are called) a
long range of foundations of buildings was lately laid bare, which
were surrounded with chara>al and ashes ; and among the ruins a
large quantity of loose stones, that had undergone the action of fire,
was discovered I observed the same appearance on former occasions,
when the ground was opened (as it often is for repairing the neigh-
bouring fences), and the conviction is complete in my mmd that &is
once important town was destroyed by fire, probably either by the
Saxons or the Danes. Though many Roman roads diverge firom it,
yet its destruction was so complete that no record of it is to be found
in Domesday Book. It may perhaps contribute to strengthen the
probability that the rocking-stone on Holystone Moor was a Dniidical
remain, when I state that, on exploring the soil below the foundations
of the walls of the Roman town, I succeeded in discovering several
adder beads, as they are called, glazed with blue, and furrowed in
the sides. If these are (as they are reputed to be) Dniidical amulets,
such a fact would go far to show that this settlement was occupied by
the Britons before the time of the Roman Conquest, and that it was
the scene of Druidical rites and ceremonies. Following the track of
the Roman road, which passes through the township of the Back-
island, we fall in with other rocky appearances, that are considered
indicative of Druidical occupancy. Of this kind is a ring of stones,
called the Wolf-fold. The stones of this circle are not erect, but lie
in a confused heap like the ruins of a building, and the largest may
have been taken away. It is but a few yards in diameter, and gives
the name of Ringstonet Edge to the adjacent moor. I should be
more disposed to ascribe a judicial than a religious character to
these stones, if indeed they are Druidical The judicial application
of such circles corresponds with the practice recorded in Scripture.
Samuel took a circuit yearly to Bethel, the pillar that Jacob erected
to Gilgal, the circle that Joshua ordered to be made, and to Mizpeh,
* As the Tews, after their conversion of Christianity, in the days of the Apostles,
still retained an attachment to their accustomed ceremonies, so we are told that
the Britons, after their conversion to Christianity, still had a veneration for the
pillar and the cromlech, and preferred performing their worship at those places,
which accounts for the practice in Ireland and the Highlands of Scotland.
t Ringstone, in some old writings called Rinstone, from which it has been
supposed to derive its name from its Runic origin ; but it is quite clear that, in the
earliest ages, a mystical importance was connected with this stone circle.
Dmidical Remains in Yorkshire. 109
and judged Israel in all that place. Remains of such circles are
found in Denmark, and one styled Dom or Doomrings. There is a
circle of this sort in Oxfordshire, called Rollright. or circle of justice.
Not far from Ringstone Edge is a parcel of rocks, on a common
called Whole or Holystone Moor. These stones, which were in general
about 5 or 6 feet in height above ground, and about 6 feet in circum-
ference, were perforated at about 3 feet from the ground by a round
hole, sufficient to admit a common-sized hand. [See ante^ p. 53.]
These were undoubtedly the work of art, and were (as has before been
conjectured) connected with some idolatrous rites and ceremonies of
primitive times. In Rishworth* (not far from the above) is a group
of stones, laid seemingly one upon another to the height of several
yards, which retains the name of Rocking-stone. Tradition says that
it once would rock, but that quality is lost Though the surrounding
district is at the present day wild and waste, yet there is reason to
believe that in early ages it was a place of some celebrity, for we find
even yet remaining vestiges of the foundation of a large building, not
fiar from the above rocking-stone, by a place called Castle Dean, an
appellation which has induced some to suppose that it was at one
time a place of strength. I do not find, however, any Roman road
leading to it It is more probable that it was a place of importance
at a period anterior to the Roman Conquest, as the name by which
this place is known is Bod or Booth Dean, which are words of
British origin. The word Dean may be a corruption from the
British name for a wood, viz. Arden, as there is sufficient evidence
that it once was woody, though there is not a tree or a bush to be
seen at the present day, for the mosses hereabouts, that are cut into
for fuel, are full of the remains of trunks of trees. As this interesting
place, however, has not been examined with the attention it deserves,
it is to be hoped that some future discoveries may tend to throw
some light upon the question. The great variety of immense and
curious rocks spread over the common make it not impossible that
it was a scene of idol worship, by the Druids or some early race of
idolaters in this part of the kingdom. I must not omit also to
mention a rude stone pillar near 6 feet high in Sowerby, of which
tradition gives various accounts. There is also in Warley what
resembles an altar, the height of which on the west side is about 3!
yards. It is a huge piece of rock, with cavities resembling rock
basins, whether artificial or natural is difficult to decide. At a short
distance from it is a rocking-stone, thrown from its centre. Round
the pedestal which supports it there is a passage, which from every
appearance seems to have been formed by art At the distance of
about half a mile from this huge rock are, or were, the remainsof a cairn,
which for centuries has been called by the country people the Sleepy
* Vidi " History of Halifax," Watson, Crabtrec
no Stones and Stone Circles,
Low; and, as usual, tradition has handed down its store of legendary
wonders to account for the singular appearance which this district
presents. There are many other remains of a similar description in
various parts of the parishes of Halifax and Hudders6eld well worthy
of further investigation, as affording decisive vestiges of the ancient
Britons, as well as marks of Druidical occupancy. Besides, the very
names of the hills and streams, in the sequestered parts of Lancashire
and Yorkshire, are such as to indicate their Celtic origin ; and indeed
the numerous brass celts, arrow-heads of flint, and battle-axes, dis-
covered from time to time in this mountainous district, sufficiently
point it out as the favourite resort of our primitive forefathers. [The
remainder of the article speculates on the origin of the Druid
religion.]
J. K. Walker, D.D.
\\%^PaHL,p. 135.]
Allow me to supply an omission in my account of the Drui-
dical remains of this part of the kingdom. In describing the peculiari-
ties incidental to these singular remains, I have not applied to them
the ordinary designation by which they are known, such as Ladstones,
Bridestones, Cromlechs, etc., and I should not have alluded to them
on the present occasion had I not been reminded of this omission by
a brother antiquary. Among the number of these is a stone or
pillar at Todmorden, which goes by the name of '' Bridestone.'* It
does not appear that this is a local term, the emanation of idle
fancy, as the same term is used in other parts of the kingdom, and
is in fact applied to some reputed Druidical remains in Staffordshire.
Nor are we able to trace the origin of this term, though I find that it
is used in very early records, referring, among other things, to the
Todmorden rocks, especially in a deed of Henry VII At the
edge of Norland Moor, a few miles from Halifax, I have already stated
that there is an immense ledge of rock, which projects over the side
of the hill, which has been called from the earliest times the Ladstone.
Other rocks have been so called elsewhere. .... With respect to
the term cromlech, I do not remember finding it in any ancient
deed, except the word Crimlishworth (now Crimsworth) derives its
name from a cromlech situate in that district The word cromlech
b said to be derived from the Armoric word crum^ crooked, and lechy
a stone ; but, if these stones were really regarded as sacred, is not
the Hebrew term " Carem luach," that is, " consecrated stone," a more
probable derivation ? [See Note 1 5,] The belief that these rocks were
the scenes of idolatrous worship is supported by tradition. Such is the
case in various parts of Scotland and Wales, where they are some-
times called chapels and temples. We learn also from the early
records of idolatry in Ireland, that one of the chief idols of that
people was styled Cromeruach, which remained till St. Patrick's
Druid Altar near Bala. 1 1 1
time. We are further told that at his approach it fell to the ground,
and the minor surrounding idols sunk into the earth up to their
necks. It seems probable, therefore, that these singular rocks,
known by the name of cromlechs, both in Britain and Ireland, were
originally what tradition has recorded them to be, heathen altars,
upon which the idolatrous priests shed the blood of victims, and
performed their superstitious rites and ceremonies.
J. K. Walker, M.D.
Sepulchral Pillar at Stowford, Devonshire.
[1838, Part /., /. 45.]
The sepulchral memorial which I would notice is extant in the
churchyard of Stowford, in the county of Devon, and has been
communicated to me by the Rev. Mr. Johnes, the incumbent It is
remarkable for the inscription that it bears : the characters, having
much aj£nity with the Pelasgo-Greek or Etruscan, may be considered
as an example of that kind of Greek letter which the Celtic people
are said, by the classic writers, to have used
After much consideration I can find no other reading for this
memorial than Pomp. s. b. i. Fompeius sepultus est intus. Nor can
I speak of this solution with any degree of certainty.'*' At any rate
the inscription is worthy the attention of the philological antiquary,
and much praise is due to the Rev. Mr. Johnes, who caused this
curious relic to be taken up from the road side and preserved in the
churchyard. The clergy are often found to be the efficient conser-
vators of our national antiquities, especially in remote and obscure
parishes, where they are peculiarly exposed to annihilation.
A. J. K.
Druid Altar near Bala
[1804, Part II., p, 907.]
During the months of July and August last, I made an excursion
into the principality of North Wales. It is inexpressible the pleasure
which I felt in surveying the bold feature of that country, and in
wandering through many a sweet valley which separate the mountains
that threaten to overwhelm them every moment As I passed along
from Llangollen to Barmouth, I received much civility and kindness
from the Ancient Britons, and particularly from the Rev. John Lloyd,
of Paley, near Bala, whose hospitality and attention to me demand my
warmest acknowledgment
It is not generally known (at least I have not seen it mentioned by
any of our Welsh tourists) that there is near this gentleman's mansion-
house a Druidical altar, in a very perfect state. This altar is situated
* The first and fourth characters, from the transverse stroke at top, I take to
be IT.
112 Stones and Stone Circles.
in a wood, surrounded with many a fine oak. It is unnecessary to
observe here, that this was invariably the situation which the Druids
chose for their bloody altars.
Mr. Lloyd told me a curious anecdote of a woman who used to
take up her abode under this altar, and who from thence, in the night
time, made visits to her neighbours in order to procure food for her
daily sustenance. These visits, you will understand, were of a preda-
tory nature, but confined solely to food. She lived there many years
undisturbed in her Druidical habitatioa
In a field adjoining to the above-mentioned wood is a stone chest,
placed about i^ foot below the surface of the ground. The side
stones are about 2 yards in length, and the heads nearly one. Now,
Mr. Urban, I should be much obliged to any of your learned corre-
spondents, if they can inform me whether diese sort of chests are
frequently to be met with in this kingdom, and what could be their
original use. By giving this a comer in your useful miscellany, you
will greatly oblige
A Northern Wanderer.
British Sepulchral Pillars at Llandawke, Carmarthen-
shire, and Stowford, Devon.
[1838, Ptfrf 7.,/^ 43.44.1
The sepulchral stel» or pillars of the Romano-Britons are well
known to antiquaries ; many of them are still extant in Devonshire
and Cornwall, still more in the principality of Wales. The r^on to
which the Britons retreated before the Saxon sword, and where they
long resisted the dominion of the Norman dynasty, of course retains
the strongest traces of the manners of its original inhabitants.
The custom of erecting pillars to point out the graves of the
deceased is very ancient: it was used by the Greeks and the
Egyptians. These stelae frequently bore inscriptions, declaring the
family and virtues of the defiinc^ or expressing some brief moral
aphorism. Monumental effigies also were employed by the Greeks
and Pelasgic tribes, of which fact such fine examples have been
recently exhibited by Signer Campanari in his facsimile models of
some Etruscan sepulchral chambers with their contents. There are
not indeed wanting approaches to sepulchral effigies in this country
of the Romano-British period, but they are in bas-relief carved on
the face of altars erected to the manes (Diis Manibus), not figures
entirely relieved and representing the defunct with all the identity of
portraiture, as appears to be the case in the tombs from Tarquinia in
Tuscany, to which we have referred. They were chiefly the work of
the Roman legionary soldiers, and placed, according to custom, by
the wayside. The Britons followed this arrangement of their Roman
inter-colonists, but the sepulchral pillars which they raised were of
Sepulchral Pillars at Llandawke, Camuirthenshire. 113
much ruder construction; and they continued the practice until
" Llanau,"* sacred enclosures or churchyards were formed, which
must have been about the time when parochial divisions took place,
and some permanent edifices and sites were consecrated to the ser-
vice of Almighty God. Parishes were commonly at first commensu-
rate with lordships or manors. The lord of the district patronised
the Christian pastor, built and endowed the church, and found his
account in the moral improvement conveyed to his vassals. The
custom of indicating graves in these enclosures, by a stone at the
head and foot of the corpse, appears to be very ancient The body
of King Arthur, buried in the cemetery at Glastonbury in 542, was
found between two pillars of stone (owing to the information con-
tained in some bardic verses), in the reign of Henry II. Whether
the inscription, said to have been discovered on a leaden plate in the
grave, be genuine, is, I imagine, very doubtful ; but the fact of the
search having been made is attested by an eye-witness, Giraldus
Cambrensis. The corpse was found inclosed in the trunk of a tree,
one well-known mode of sepulture with the British race. The sepul-
chral figures, commonly called the Pilgrims' Stones, in the church-
yard of Llanfihangel-Aber-Cowin, of which I have forwarded you
some account [see Note 16], together with their head and foot stones,
are perhaps very late examples, in the middle age, of British tombs.
I now request you to record two ancient sepulchral pillars hitherto
unnoticed. Having received information from the Rev. Mr. Thomas,
the Rector of Llandawke, that an ancient inscribed but illegible stone
was placed in that church, I took an early opportunity of examining
it. The litUe church of Llandawke is situated about one mile north-
west of Laugharne, in a hollow on the side of a hill, and within a
few yards of a fine spring of water, which makes its way to augment
a rill that flows in the valley a quarter of a mile below.
The early British churches were frequently placed near springs of
water ; they probably were erected on the sites of the sacred circles
and cromlechs of the Druids : water being employed both in the
Pagan and Christian religious rites. I found the stone here
deUneated laid down as tibe sill of the church door. A copious
ablution cleared its inscription, and the whole became legible,
which I construe, ^ To the memory of \MemoruB understood] Barry-
vend, the son of Venburar." The true Latin construction would, it
may be observed, make the second word of the l^end filii; but this
is a British, not a Roman inscription. And I have found another
similar instance of inattention to grammar by a native sculptor. The
A% it will be observed, in this inscription are peculiarly formed, and
the 5 in filius is reversed. The letter / horizontaUy placed is a
* The plural of Llan, a yard or inclosure ; the word was sobseqaently employed
to signifv the Eglwys, Ecclesia, or Church itself, and is the general prefix of the
Welw cnarches, coupled with the name of some native pastor or saint.
VOL. VI. 8
1 1 4 Stones and Stone Circles.
common mode in British inscriptions of finishing a word* Barry-
vend is perhaps some British variation of the name Baruch. Baruch,
a saint of the close of the seventh century, was buried in the island
of Barry, which from that circumstance received his name. Barri-
vend^ if it may be read as a contraction, may express " Baruch vendi-
gaid^^ or the blessed. The inscription I should judge to be of the
seventh or eighth century ; and that it probably commemorates some
primitive Christian teacher on this spot
Cromlech at Llangattock Park.
[1847, Part II,, p, 526.]
Some workmen recently engaged in clearing away a large heap
of stones in Llangattock Park, the seat of his Grace the Duke
of Beaufort, accidentally met with a cist or cromlech, consisting of
four rude stones put up in the ground on their edges, while a fifth
covers the top. On its being opened, a quantity of human bones
were discovered, some of which soon crumbled to dust; but the
bone of the arm and also the upper part of the jaw, part of the
skull, and a row of teeth, were quite perfect, all of which were
carefolly collected and preserved. The size of the interior was 8 feet
6 inches long, 4 feet wide, reduced to 3 feet 10 inches at the other
end, and 2 feet 2 inches high.
The M£n Skryfa Stone.
[i849,.Pflff//.,/. 494.]
Many of your readers will remember that the M^n Skryfa, one of the
most remarkable primeval monuments of this county [Cornwall], was
restored to an erect position about twenty-four years ago, at the time
Lanyon Cromleh, which had fallen ten years before, was again set up
by means of the tackling forwarded from the Government stores for
the purpose of replacing the Logan stone. At that period the act of
raising it was simply one of laudable reverence, for, whether standing
or prostrate, its situation in an out-of-the-way croft seemed to promise
it a sufficient security from injury. The case is, however, widely
different now, when there is such a demand for our granite ; and as
the surface blocks are specially coveted, not only because they are
more durable than most of the quarried material, but also because
they are cheaper— leave being readily obtained for their removal,
which renders the land available for tillage — it is much to be feared
that the inscribed stone, no longer distinguished by its upright
position, will be treated with as little ceremony as the nameless ones
amongst which it lies.
* The dash ^ preceding the word BARRIV£ND>-i denotes an abbreviation. If
the horizontal hh may be taken to express the termination us, the whole might be
read in correct Latinity : " Hie situs est Barrivendus, 61ius Venborari.*' — ^We have
no doubt this latter reading, Barrivendttf, is the correct one.
Remains of an Ancient Temple in Ireland. 115
Being in its immediate neighbourhood the other day, I was
surprised at missing it from its accustomed place in the view, for
it was a very marked object, distinctly seen on a line connecting
Lanyon Croml^h with one of the horns of Cam Galva, about a mile
from the former, and perhaps half a mile from the latter; and
standing, as it formerly did, in the midst of furze and heath, its lighter
colour rendered it more conspicuous. On examination I discovered
it lying prostrate in the crofl where it had stood, but which, having
recently been broken up for tillage, has been cleared of all but this
and a few other blocks too large to admit of their being easily carted
away, except piecemeal. A respectable countryman, of whom I
inquired the cause of its overthrow, informed me that the farmer,
who is also the proprietor, had a few weeks since dug around and
beneath it, in the hope of finding buried treasure, and had, of
course, succeeded in upsetting it
Should no effort be made to preserve it, it seems indeed more than
probable that it will shortly pass into the hands of the masons ; and
future antiquaries, while they lament the indifference of our generation,
must console themselves as best they may by studying the engraving
of ' one of the oldest monuments in Cornwall/ in Borlase's ' Antiqui-
ties.' To that work, too, they will at no distant day be obliged to
resort in order to form a guess what the neighbouring relic, Chdn
Castle, once was, so rapidly is it disappearing ; for although the hill-
side is covered with stones, its vile destroyers, if not with deliberate
malice, at least with very perverse taste, prefer to pillage its ramparts,
and even its massive gateway.
Is there, let me ask, no public-spirited Member of Parliament who,
before every vestige of our habitational monuments has been swept
away by rustic ignorance or modern improvements, will urge on the
Government the necessity for adopting the only effectual means for
checking the spoliation, viz., a law which shall make every landholder
responsible for the safety of those existing on his property? [See
Note 17.]
The materials for such a registration as would be required of those
objects of antiquities which the law here suggested is intended to
protect, are in great part furnished by the Ordnance Survey, especially
by the more extensive one now in hand But in order to render it
more complete, local antiquaries might be invited to call the atten-
tion of the Government employ^ to any deficiencies in their maps
and accompanying reports.
The Sculptured Stone at Migvie.
[1861, /%if/ //., /. 71.]
One of those interesting monuments of pre-historic Scotland, which
have of late engaged the attention of antiquaries, has just been dis-
covered in the old churchyard of Migvie. It had lain half buried in
8—2
ii6 Stones and Stone Circles.
the ruins of a burial-aisle, unobserved, till Mr. Smith, schoolmaster,
detected the carvings on its partly exposed surface ; he had it exca-
vated and exposed to public view, and it now stands set up in the
churchyard. It is a rough block of apparently unhewn granite,
standing some six feet above the ground, and sculptured on both
sides. On one side is the conventionally ornamented cross peculiar to
that class of sculptures, supported on each side by a pair of the
symbolical figures of as yet unknown meaning ; below these, and
underneath the arms of the cross, is the almost effaced representation
of a horse, and an implement like a pair of spring-headed shears.
The other side of the stone, which is very rough and uneven, bears
the figure of a single mounted horseman. We believe the stone has
t)een drawn for the Spalding Club, and will form a plate in their new
volume of sculptured stones preparing for publication. — Aberdeen
Free Press. [See Note i8.]
Figure and Description of an Irish Cromlech.
[1752,/. 230.]
This cut represents what the Irish call a cromlech, being a stone
of enormous size resting upon three others near Ballymascandlan,
about two miles from Dundalk, in Ireland. The incumbent stone,
measuring 12 feet diameter one way and 6 another, is supposed to
weigh between 30 and 40 ton, and by the inhabitants is called the
" Giant's Load." The Irish say it was brought from the neighbour-
ing mountains by Parrah bough M'Shagjean, a giant, whose grave or
sepulchre of stonework they pretend to show 20 feet long and 5
broad, out of which human bones of a monstrous size, as they afiirm,
have been dug. Many ancient remains of this kind are to be met
with in almost every county of Ireland, and are doubtless the ruins
of temples, where the Druids called the people together to perform
religious rites. Mr. Wright's conjecture (see his " Louthiana," p. 12),
that they were no other than tombstones, because placed upon a
foundation so precarious as to deter men from digging under them
to disturb the ashes of the dead, seems to destroy itself; for that
foundation cannot surely be deemed precarious which has continued
to support such a load for so many ages, even beyond the records of
time. Besides, it is evident that the ancient sepulchral monuments
in these islands were of another kind, not unlike those of the ancient
Peruvians already described in p. 212 [see Note 19], several of which
are yet to be seen both in Great Britain and Ireland.
In Scotland are many of these massy piles called cairns, generally
ascribed to the labour of the devil ; but though the natives are totally
ignorant of their origin, they still preserve some traces of the custom
of raising them ; for where any person suddenly drops down dead,
if upon the road or in the field, a rude heap of stones is immediately
thrown together upon the spot by the first who finds the corpse, and
Remains of an Ancient Temple in Ireland. 1 1 7
the common people as they pass help to increase the pile, by adding
each a stone to the original heap; and there are some so superstitiously
scrupulous in thb respect as to go a quarter of a mile to fetch a stone
rather than pass by without contributing to peq^tuate the memory of
the event \ a neglect which they think will be attended with some mis-
fortune to themselves.
Irish Cromlech.
[1802, Part L^ p. 105.]
The inclosed is a representation of a cromlech standing in the
glen of Bryanstown, about seven miles from Dublin, in the barony of
Rathdown. It consists of six stones placed perpendicularly, and on
these an enormous one is laid in an inclined position, which is in
length 15^ feet, in breadth 12 feet, and in thickness from 2 to 5. It
is computed to weigh 26 tons.
If you deem it worthy of a comer in your next Miscellaneous
Plate, it is wholly at your service. 2.
Remains of an Ancient Temple in Ireland.
[1753. A 9.1
A representation of the remains oi a temple or theatre on the
planes of fiallynanatye, near Dundalk ; 'tis enclosed on one side with
a rampart and ditch, and seems to have been a very great work, of
the same kind with that at Stonehenge, in England, being open to
the east and composed of like circles of stones within. But it appears
to be much older, many of the stones being broke, and others re-
moved And here probably was the first settlement of a part of the
western Heneti, for b€dl^ in the Irish tongue, signifies dwelling.
Remains near Lough Gur, Co. Limerick.
[1833, /'jrr /., /^. 105- 1 12.]
In furnishing you with the particulars of a paper which was read
before the Society of .Antiquaries three years since, respecting a
Druidical work, which I believe to be at once the least known and
the most extensive in existence, I must express my regret that it was
not in my power to make so complete and satisfactory a survey of the
remains as I desired, or as the Council of that Society thought neces-
sary for publication.
Nevertheless, as no one has since stepped forward to supply addi-
tional particulars, and as the antiquary who meditates (and I know
of more than one) a visit of examination would in the present state
of the country act prudently by ''leaving his throat in England,"
there appears to be little chance of further details being speedily
supplied
Due allowance will I trust be made for my rough notes, when I
candidly state that unfavourable weather, an inability at the time to
.j^
ii8 Stones and Stone Circles.
walk any considerable distance, and the nature and extent of the
ground which it was necessary to traverse, rendered my investigation
in many parts extremely hurried and imperfect ; although the greater
portion of three days was devoted to it Indeed, it was not alto-
gether a service free from danger ; for I was actually sheltered by
Mr. Baylee in his castle from an assembly of the peasantry, who
had collected upon observing me measuring some distances, and
warned me off, declaring that "as the ground never had been mea-
siu-ed, so it never should be measured ; and that all tythe proctors
and their surveyors were marked men."
It is the observation of my countryman Dr. Ledwich, that on no
subject has fancy roamed with more licentious indulgence than on
that of the Druids and their works ; but in sending you such parti-
culars as my notes enable me to put together regarding these magni-
ficent and scarcely noticed Druidical monuments, I propose to con-
fine my remarks within the limits of the topographer, leaving it to
others better qualified than myself to raise theories on the facts which
I have collected.
Lough Gur — a name which almost tempts the verbal theorist to
speculate from its affinity to the Hebrew ^\ (Gur), a congregation —
in and around which the Druidical works alluded to are situated, lies
about ten English miles south of the city of Limerick, on the east side
of the mail-coach road between that city and Cork.
The circumference of this lake may be estimated at nearly five
English miles, and its greatest breadth of water at three-quarters of a
mile. It contains six islands ; four of which, however, scarcely deserve
the name, as their appearance is merely that of tufts of trees rising
out of the water. The fifth island on the western side of the lake is
inconsiderable, but it is of extent sufficient to have been the site of a
small castle, of which the base is still visible. This castle, which
must have been a picturesque object, has been, I was informed, very
recently pulled down by Mr. Croker, of Grange, for building material,
although an abundance might have been otherwise procured without
difficulty, and with the stones he has erected a lime-Kiln on the oppo-
site shore, to disfigure the romantic view from the windows of his
residence.
The sixth, or principal island, called Knockadoon, or the fortified
hill, is oblong in form, and contains sixty acres. It is now connected
with the mainland by two causeways, which approaches were respec-
tively defended by a massive tower or castle, probably constructed in
the fifteenth century by the Geraldines. The tower which protects
the northern causeway is the larger and more perfect of the twa It
still retains the name of the Black Castle, and is no doubt the strong-
hold mentioned in the "Pacata Hibernia," where the treacherous
capture of Lough Gur (in May, 1600) is particularly described.
Lough Gur and the surrounding district was forfeited with the rest
Remains near Lough Gur. 1 1 g
of the Desmond possessions, and became the residence of Mr. Baylee,
who went into Ireland as a confidential agent to the Fane family.
And the island of Knockadoon is still held by the representative of
the fiaylees, under the Count de Salis, the present proprietor; to
whom the estate descended in right of his mother, who was a daughter
of Lord Fane. In consequence of the state of civil warfare in which
Ireland was involved, the Black Castle was the dwelling of the Baylee
£imily until after the surrender of Limerick. About the year 1700*
Mr. John Baylee built the present dwelling-house, in the fieishion of
the period, adjacent to the castle.
Having now briefly described Lough Gur, and glanced at its recent
history, I come to the object of this communication ; to give some
account of the numerous Druidical remains by which it is surrounded.
With the view of facilitating my account, I beg to refer to the accom-
panying sketch of Lough Gur (Plate I.) which, though made from
recollection, will, I trust, be sufficiently accurate for the purpose.
And here it is but justice to Mr. Twiss (although his name as an
Irish tourist has become a term of reproach) to mention that the first
notice of these remains occurs in his *' Tour in Ireland,'' published
in 1775.
^'I made an excursion," sa3rs Mr. Twiss, ''of nine miles on the
road to Cork, to see three circles of stones, supposed to have been
thus placed by the Druids. They are near a small lake called Gur ;
the principal of which is about 150 feet in diameter, and consists of
40 stones, of which the largest is 13 feet long, 6 broad, and 4 thick.
These kinds of circles are to be met with in many parts of Ireland.
Several are described and engraved in the ' Louthiana,' to which I
refer. Near these on a hill is a small cromlech."
In 1785 the celebrated John Wesley appears to have visited these
circles near the road, from the following passage in his Journal :
"Saturday, May 14. — I found a far greater curiosity: a large
Druidical temple. I judged by my eye that it was not less thai>
100 yards in diameter; and it was, if I remember right, full as entire
as that at Stonehenge, or that at Stanton Drue. How our ancestors,
could bring, or even heave these enormous stones, what modern can
comprehend !"
Ferrar (a bookseller in Limerick), who in 1787 published a "His-
tory of Limerick," censures Dr. Campbell, author of the " Philoso-
phical Survey of the South of Ireland," for omitting to mention " the
Druidical ruin " near Lough Gur, but contents himself with merely
quoting Twiss.
I think mention is made of these circles in a posthumous publica-
tion by the unfortunate Mr. Trotter, entitled "Walks through Ireland,"
* On a pier of the stable gateway is Eculptured the initials of Henry, the son
of John and probably Susanna Baylee.
I20 Stones and Stone Circles.
but, as far as my recollection serves, it is little more than a very slight
notice.*
In Fitzgerald's and McGregor's '* History of Limerick," published
in 1826, the following account is given of those circles, when treating
on the parish of Fediunore :
"Beyond the village of Grange, dose to the public road from
Limerick to Cork, on the left, are diree curious stone circles. The
first is 45 yards in diameter, and consists at present of 65 laige up-
right stones, but there were formerly many more. One of these stones
is 13 feet high, 7 feet broad, and 4 feet thick. The entire circle is
surrounded by a sloping bsink about 12 feet in breadth and 6 in
height At a short distance to the north of this is another circle 50
yards in diameter, consisting of 72 smaller stones standing, and a
little to the east a third, which is but 17 yards in diameter, and com-
posed of 15 large rocks standing erect A few yards to the east of
these b a laige stone lying flat, ^\ feet in length, 6 in height, and
4^ in breadth, which is generaUy supposed to have been the altar for
sacrifice."
So far Messrs. Fitzgerald and M'Gregor, whose further occasional
references to the parts of this vast and interesting work I will note
where they occur. At these circles near the mail-coach road, which
have been thus slightly noticed by the tourists and topographers just
mentioned, I propose commencing my account of the most numerous
assemblage of Druidical remains in existence in any country, and
with which I have discovered them to be in connection. Indeed, so
obvious is the connection between the various circles, pillar-stones,
altars, and similar vestiges, that an examination of one leads the eye
to discover others ; and thus was I led on from one monument to
another over a space of country the circumference of which I cannot
estimate at less than ten miles. Beyond this, even at a distance of
* The following is the passage aUuded ta It occurs in a letter dated from Limerick,
Sept. 2, 1817 : '* A mile or two from Bruff we discovered, in some fields adjoining
the road, a large circular Druidical place of worship ; the diameter was 60 yards,
and the circle was formed by laige upright stones ; one very large one, much
higher than the rest, about 18 feet, stood in it. A smaller circular spot, formed in
the same manner, is not far from it. What may be the antiquity or exact uses of
these circles I cannot pretend to say. I have called them Druidical in compliance
with the general style of speaking. They may have been used by other ministers
of religion before Druids were known I The antiquity of the customs and manners
of Ireland is perhaps not fully known ; it is beyond doubt very great. As a place
of worship, where a simple and virtuous race offered their humble adoration to a
great directing Deity, we viewed it with respect, and did not leave it hastily. The
origin, dates, and peculiar rites of these rude circles I however leave to antiquarians.
Several young Irishmen accompanied us to, and remained with us at them. They
conversed with interest on their probable uses, and derived much pleasure from our
remarks, to which they replied with great acuteness and feeling. But as our time
was short, we hastened to leave these rude memorials of the piety of former days.
Since their erection who is it can say how many centuries — how many generations
have floated into the tide of futurity ?"
Remains near Lough Gur. 121
above fifteen miles in a direct line from the lake, I found stone circles
and other Druidical works, between which and those at Lough Gur I
was unable to establish a connection, although it appears probable
that such once existed.
Notwithstanding that the circles near the Cork mail-coach road are
pretty accurately described by Mr. Fit^erald in the account quoted
from his and Mr. M'Gregor's *' History of Limerick,'' I will give my
measurements of them, without, however, asserting that mine are the
more correct of the two.
No. I is 27 yards from the road, 165 yards in circumference, and
46 yards (Fitzgerald says 45 yards) in diameter. Sixty-three (Fitz-
gerald says 65) stones remain. The measurement of the great stone,
marked A, I found to
ft. in.
Fit^erald.
Height ... ...
...
...
9 6
13
Circumicreiice ...
...
...
20 10
Breftdth ... ...
•« .
••*
7
7
Thickness
...
...
4
4
The circle Na 2 is 46 yards north of No. i. I found the circum-
ference to be 184 yards, the diameter 54 yards (Fits^erald sajrs 50).
The third cirde, according to my measurement, is 74 yards in cir-
cumference, and measured 55 feet 7 inches in diameter ; Fitzgerald
makes it only 51 feet, although we agree in the number of stones,
viz., 15.
Some large stones, the dimensions of one of which is given by
Fitzgerald, lie on the east of the circle Na 2, without any obvious
connection, and are marked in the plan.
In the centre or l^irgest circle. No. 2, I did not without some
trouble make out 69 stones (Fitzgerald's number is 72), from many
being much sunk in the ground, and overgrown with weeds and
brambles. I was informed that twelve of the largest stones had been
recently taken away from the circle, and broken up to repair the
road.
Many of the stones which compose the southern circle (No. i) are
considerably larger than those in any other of the circles about Lough
Gur. On the largest (marked A), where a difference of 2 feet 6 inches
exists between Mr. Fitzgerald's and my measurements, as to the
height, I should observe that a countryman told me he had seen a
hole which was dug by the side of this stone to the depth of upwards
of 6 feet from the surface, by some persons who had dreamed that
money was buried under it, without their being able to come at its
base.
Of the smallest of these three circles, although Mr. Fitzgerald says
it is composed of " fifteen large rocks," I can decidedly state that the
average size of the stones is less than those of the other circles.
And now for objects which have hitherto either nearly or entirely
122 Stones and Stone Circles.
ft.
in.
5
17
6
6
6
4
ft.
in.
'Z
iS
Q
escaped observatioa About 160 yards in a north-east direction from
the smallest circle (No. 3) is a single stone, marked B, and in the
same direction, about 100 yards further, within an inclosure called
Croker's Paddock, stands the great pillar scone, generally observed to
be in connection with stone circles, marked C
The measurement of the stone B
rlright ... ...
Circumference
Breadth
Thickness
The measurement of C is —
Circumference of the base
Greatest circumference
Broadest face 6 4
Heig^ht ... ... ... ... II 9
The great stone C is situated upon the weit side of a rising ground,
the opposite descent of which forms the shore of the lake ; the smaller
end is placed in the ground, and it inclines to the west The soil of
Croker's Paddock is entirely limestone, but this great pillar-stone is a
hard breschia, which would take a high polish. It may here be worth
particular remark, as I found the observation of much use in carrying
on my investigation, that the stone used in this prodigious Druidical
work is generally different from that to be procured on the spot
Proceeding along the southern shore of Ix)Ugh Gur by a road which
strikes off from the mail-coach road at a point called Holy Cross, on
gaining the first rising ground, distant probably about half a mile from
the circles just mentioned, I observed some large stones in a field on
the right of the road, which induced me to examine the place. The
first of these I found to be a large stone of a triangular shape, sup-
ported by three smaller stones, marked in the plan D, and represented
m Plate II. in two points of view. The length of the tabular stone
is 7^ feet ; at the larger end it measures 6 feet across, and at the
smaller, i foot One of the supporters measures 3^ feet in breadth,
and another 6^ feet ; the third, which appears to be the largest, I was
unable to measure, from its being completely covered by tihe tabular
stone.
This altar is called by the country people Labigdiarmud (pro-
nounced Labigyermud), or Edward's Bed At the distance of about
50 or 60 yards south of the altar there are three large stones marked
£ and F. Two of these are very close to each other, and they
measure respectively,
ft. in. in.
Length ... ... 8 6 7 ^
Breadth 40 30
Remains near Lough Gur. 123
Returning to the road in a north-easlerly direction, about 40 or 50
yards from the altar, I found two large stones marked G, in Plate I.
and represented in Plate II.
Their respective measurements are —
No. I. No. 2.
ft. in. ft. in.
Length 80 56
Breadth 36 36
Depth 19 20
The ground on which this altar and these stones are situated is
called fiallynagillough, or, as it was translated to me, Hag's town ;*
and I was told that there had formerly been a nunnery here, and that
some stone coffins had been recently dug up in the altar field, t
Some old walls} and trenches are still to be seen near a farmhouse,
marked in the plan. Archdale, in his '* Monasticon Hibernicum,"
mentions the nunnery of Negillagh or Monaster ni calligh near Lough
Gur, which was dedicated to St Catherine for the canonesses of St
Augustine.
On the left of the road is the new churchy now in ruins, and from
the base of the eminence on which it is situated, extending along the
southern shore of the lake, various Dniidical works, marked H, are
apparent ; but it was out of my power distinctly to trace them. Three
circles, however, are quite evident That marked No. i is 20 yards
in diameter, and at present consists of fifteen stones. No. 2 is 13
yards in diameter, and I counted eight stones ; from this to the water
two parallel lines of similar stones extend. No. 3 measures 8 yards in
diameter, and consists of seven stones. Between this and the new
church, a serpentine passage, formed by parallel stones, may be traced,
which terminates in the Red Bog, a track of low ground about a
quarter of a mile in breadth. Beyond (that is to say, to the east of)
the circle. No. i, H, several very large masses of stone appear mixed
with smaller ones, but I was unable to define any particular form ; and
still further along the shore of the lake, two circles, and other remains,
are to be discerned.
The side of the road opposite to that on which these numerous
vestiges are situated, rises rather abruptly, and is of a bold rocky
* I should be inclined to translate this — Nun's town. CailUach in Irish signifies
a hag, or old woman (in Hebrew Calach is old age) ; and as old women wore their
heads covered up, so the name was applied to hooded nuns.
t Speakine of Lough Gur, Messrs. Fitzgerald and M*Gregor observe, "On
Bailenalycailleah Hill in this neighbourhood is a cromlech, near which a stone
coffin was found a few years since, with a human skeleton. At less than half a
mile south of this are two others, one of which has been lately broken down by a
farmer, who had two of the stones taken to make pillars for his gateway."
X ** But what renders this place most remarkable is that within a few yards of
the abbey are still to be seen the old walb of the house that belonged to a branch
of the family of Brownes of Camas, so famous for their exploits in Russia and
Germany." — Fitzgerald and M'Grcgor.
124 Stones and Stone Circles.
character. Here several Druidical stones are evident, but my ex-
amination was too hurried to allow me to ascertain their relative
positions.
The most remarkable, however, are those called by the country
people '^ Labig yermuddagh a Grana," or Ned and Grace's bed This
bed was a complete oblong chamber formed by great stones, and
covered by vast flags. It is marked I in the plan, and in Plate 11. is
a sketch of its present appearance. The measurements of three of
the largest stones, marked Nos. i» 2, 3» is —
Height Breadth. Depth. End.
ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in.
Na 1 7 6
Breadth.
Depth.
ft. in.
ft. in.
Vo
I 6
I 4
5 6
I
8 76 60 14 30
3 ••• ••• a 6
The length of the chamber was 13^ feet by 6. A countryman named
Garrett Punch, nearly opposite whose cabin it b situated, told me that
an old woman had resided in it for many years, and on her death the
covering stones were thrown off, and it was left in its present state by
" money diggers," who, to use my informant's words, " only found
some burned bones in an old jug, that surely was not worth one brass
farthing."
Above and about Labig yermuddagh a Grana there were several
great stones, but I could trace no decided forms, although I am in-
clined to think a straight road between rows of about thirty large
stones, which have been displaced, led up to a mass of rock resting
upon four supporters, and marked K. This tabular rock measured in
circumference 10^ feet, in breadth 6 feet, and in thickness 2.
From hence I proceeded over some untitled rocky ground, in a
south-west direction, towards a singular natural formation, situated on
a descent to the Red Bog, called Carrignanahin,* or the Mass Rock,
of the appearance of which the sketch in Plate II. will convey an
idea. Among the natural rocks between K and the Mass Rock, there
are evidently several great stones of Druidical origin, but not to be
clearly defined
Many superstitious tales are current among the peasantry respecting
this rock, and it was not without an evident feeling of awe that a
countryman who accompanied me approached it. He blessed him-
self more than once, spoke in an undertone, and at length cautiously
pointed out to me what he called the holy chamber, a hollow m the
rock, with evident marks of fire, and from which he affirmed there
was a passage into the centre, although I could perceive no opening
whatever. He, however, insisted that such existed, as he knew a man
who had been taken into the grand room within, which resembled a
* I have written this as it was pronounced. Nahin should be, correctly speak-
ing^, futhiffif the Irish for covenant, law, Naidm, etc.
Remains near Lough Gur. 125
chapel This superstitious veneration may be attributed to the re-
markable and artiBcial appearance of the rock itself, as well as to the
tradition connected with its name, which is said to have been derived
from a priest having regularly celebrated mass in the holy chamber,
at a period when the Roman Catholic religion was under proscrip*
tioa*
Returning from the Mass Rock to the road which leads along the
shore of the lake already described, I found many Druidical stones,
at least so I judged them to be, as they were of a different stone from
that of the soil. Three of the largest were distant about 8 yards
from each other, and measured
No. I.
No. 2.
No. 3.
ft. in.
ft. in.
fl. in.
In length
Breadth
... 8 6
3 6
8
7 6
9
7
Thickness ...
2 6
2 6
2
Proceeding eastward by the road, about three-quarters of a mile
brought me to the little village of Lough Gur Cross ; and then turning
to the northward, or nearly parallel to the Cork and Limerick mail-
coach road, immediately on my left, I found the tabular stone L, sup-
ported by three stones, and represented in Plate II. It measures in
length 7 feet ; in breadth 6 at one end, and 4 at the other, and is
about a foot in thickness. The largest of its supporters is nearly of
the same dimensions, measuring 7 feet in length, 5^ feet in breadth,
and 18 inches in thickness. Several large stones and masses of rock
were lying near it, but my attention was drawn from them to the rising
ground which lay before me and between the road and the lake. This
eminence is called Carrig-galla,t and upon it I found two circular
works, marked M, constructed with regularly squared stones, resem-
bling those used in building quays, placed and fitted one to the other,
but without any appearance of mortar having been used The height
of this circular wsdl in some places may have been nearly 10 feet, and
it seemed as if built about a mound of earth, as the grass-covered
inclosed space was level with the highest part.^
* ** Near New Church before mentioned, on the south side of Lough Gur, is a
vei^ large high rock full of chasms and hollows, called in Irish the Mass Rode ;
which name it received from the circumstance of Mass being said in a hollow of
this rock during the civil war of the seventeenth century, when its public cdebra-
tion was prohibited by the English Parliament'* — Fitzgerald and M'Gregor.
I may add that the priest is traditionally said to have been Dr. Keating, the
Irish historian.
t Carrtg, a rock. I am inclined to think galia should be CealiaCf contention,
war, strife, from the appearance of the works, which may be presumed to be for
military purposes.
X ** On an eminence joining the lake on the east similar fortifications (to those
on Knockfennel) are found, surrounded with immense rough rocks, the ascent to
which from the lake side is very rugged, difficult, and high." — Fitzgerald and
M'Gregor.
126 Stones and Stone Circles.
The road runs through a valley between Carrig-galla and the oppo-
site hill of Knockruah (or the Red Hill), on which, distant about a
quarter of a mile in a direct line, I found three stone circles, marked
N. Of these No. i was the most perfect. It measured in circumfer-
ence 192 yards, and had two or perhaps three circles of stones within
the outward one. The centre of these circles measured 14 yards in
diameter.
No. 2, to the north-east of No. i, is distant from it 24 yards, and
measures 43 yards in circumference, and 10 in diameter.
Na 3, which lies 43 yards south of No. 2, is 37 yards distant from
No. I, and measures 28 yards in diameter, and 113 in circumference.
From the circles on Knockruah I ascended by the road in a north-
west direction about a quarter of a mile The hill up which this road
leads is called Ardacolleagh, or the Height of the Halter, from having
been formerly used as a place of execution by the Earls of Desmond.
Here, in making the road a few years since, some stone coffins were
(ound and several bones. In a field called Park a legaune, or Stone-
field, to the left of the road, I observed several stones lying about, and
remains of intrenchments, but nothing sufficient to warrant the conclu-
sion that they were of Druidical origin, except a pillar-stone, marked O,
which evidently appeared to be in connection with the circles on
Knockruah. The measurement of this stone is — in height, 9 feet 4
inches; circumference, 14 feet 6 inches; breadth, 6 feet 9 inches;
thickness, i foot i inch.
Descending from Ardacolleagh, I approached the island of Knocka-
doon by the causeway formerly defended by the Black Castle. On
my left I perceived three or four Druidical stones, probably part of a
small circle, marked P.
This island, the Druidical works on which are so evidently in con-
nection with those by which they are surrounded, rises with a double
crown. That furthest from Mr. Baylee's residence is called the Back
Hill. The nearest hill has a very small circular cairn on its summit,
and in the valley between this and the Back Hill there are some
curious natural masses of rock, not unlike the formation of Carrig-
nanahin or the Mass Rock before mentioned ; particularly one which
resembled a castle with circular towers so closely that it was some
time before I was convinced it was not artificial.
Near this rock, and running through the hollow between the two
hills, a road or boundary, formed of large stones, may be traced de-
scending to the water.
On the Back Hill I came to a circle of small stones. No. i, which
measured 35 yards in diameter, and 120 in circumference. There
were six circles within the outward one, at about a yard from each
other, and this was about the space between each stone, so that from
the single stone in the centre it had the appearance of being entirely
filled up with stones.
Remains near Laugh Gur. 127
Close to the south side of this circle were four stones similar to
those of which it is formed. The bearings of this circle were remark-
able, being in a direct line with the Mass Rock on the south, with
the pillar-stone in Croker's Paddock on the west, and on the north
with the pillar-stone in Park a legaune.
About 800 yards di$tant from No. i was a simple stone circle
marked Na 2, which measures 18 yards in diameter and 84 in cir-
cumference. From this circle No. 3 is distant 38 yards. It b
situated upon a very abrupt descent of the hill (probably 100 feet
perpendicular), and a section would present nearly the hollow quarter
of a circle, as its lower edge almost touches the water. No. 3
measures in circumference 180 yards, and 48 in diameter. It ap-
pears to have been a compound, like No. i, of circles within circles,
but it is by no means in so perfect a state. Above it rises some fine
craggy rode, in the east side of which there is a natural cave. The
entrance is very low and narrow, but I was informed by Mr. Baylee
that this cave was spacious within ; and I have since been told that
at various periods oif danger, even so late as the year 1798, it has
been used as a place of retreat*
Not far from this there is another natural cave, called the Red
Cellar. Beneath the rock in which the former is situated, and close
to the circle No. 3, are two semicircles, and a straight wall of stones
which descends to the shore.
A considerable hill called Knockfennel forms the north-western
shore of Lough Gun Immediately at its base there is a square
earthen work (R), and on one of its points a grass-covered cairn (S),
composed mostly of very small stones, although some squared masses,
like those on Carrig-galla, were to be seen. The diameter of this
cairn is 45 yards ; and I was told that one precisely similar is on
another and a higher point of Knockfennel (T).t
* Fitzgerald and M'Gregor state : " On the north side of the hill of Knockadoon
is a cave about 22 feet in depth, and generally about 12 feet broad and 10 high.
The mouth of the cave, which is 4 feet broad and 7 high, is hidden by an alder
tree. The ascent is steep and rough, occasioned by huge rocks that have fallen in
every direction towards the lake ; and over the cave are irregular layers of large
projecting rocks, rising about 20 feet above it*'
t " On the west pinnacle of Knockfennel is one of the strongest Danish forts
in the countrv ; it is circular, and about 360 feet in circumference. The wall that
surrounds it is 10 feet in thickness, and must have been proportionately high, from
the quantity of stone that has fallen outside. That part of the wall Uiat still
remains is built of large stones nearly 3 feet every way, regularly fitted to each
other, and the interstices filled up with smaller ones ; but there is no sign of
mortar. From this down to the lake walls of similar construction extend, about
60 yards asunder, to the north side of the hill, where they terminate at some deep
marsh or morass ; these walls are connected by others of the same kind. On the
east point of Knockfennel, which is very hi^^h, there is a smaller fortification, and
along the valley, which lies between those high points, the remains of walls can be
traced, terminating in like manner at the lake to the south and the deep grounds
to the north." — Fitzgerald and M'Gregor.
128 Stones and Stone Circles.
Such is the brief description of the antiquities of Lough Gur.
Along the road leading from its Cross towsutls Kilmallock, other
circles and Druidical works are obvious, under a hill caUed Knock-
derk, marked Q in the plaa
Subsequently to my visit to Lough Gur, I discovered another
Labigyermuddah or Bed, as it was called, at the distance of about
15 miles on Cromwell Hill ; and about 4 miles nearer Lough Gur, a
stone circle (through which a road had been carried) at Canigeens,
or the Little Rocks, a name evidently derived from it
I cannot conclude without expressing regret that I am unable to
frimish a more correct account In some places I have been obliged
to trust entirely to memory ; and when speaking even of the cardinal
pointSy may possibly be in error, as I was without a compass, and only
guided by my general knowledge of the country.
Let me, however, indulge a hope that what I have stated may draw
the attention of persons possessed of greater knowledge on the subject,
and with the necessary means at command, to give a detailed and
satisfiactory description of these remarkable remains
Yours, venerable Sir, very devotedly,
T. Crofton Crokbr.
Druid Altar in Guernsey.
[1796, PM /., p. 373.1
I send you the drawing of one of the Druid's altars at Guernsey
(fig. 2). There are two more in that part of the island which is called
Le Clos du Val ; but the one I send you is the principal
Surface of altar at the Clos du Val, called La Pierre de Dehus,
perhaps from Deus. It points east and west There are three stones,
all inclining to the north. The stones that support the two greatest
form an exact square.
Dimensions of the Great Stone. — Length, 15 feet 6 inches ; breadth,
7 feet 4^ inches ; thickness, 4 feet 5^ inches, south side ; ditto, 2 feet
5 inches, north side.
Miscellaneous Antiquities :
British Period.
VOL. VI.
MISCELLANEOUS ANTIQUITIES.
BRITISH PERIOD
On the Clothing of the Ancient Britons.
[1830, Art//, ;!^ 291-39+.]
IN the year 1785, some particulars were comraunicated to the
Society of Antiquaries by the Countess of Hoiro, and published
in the Archxologia, voL vii., p. 90, relative to a human skeleton, and
the gannents that were found thereon, dug out of a bog in the county
of Down, in the autumn of 1780.
This circumstance was most assuredly of a very extraordinary
nature, and was calculated to excite much attention. But I am not
aware that the public have yet been led to appreciate this discovery
in its true light, or to the flill extent of its im^wrtsnce. I think not
And it is under this impression that I take up my pen to offer you a
few remarks, which I am inclined to hope may be acceptable
In Older that the circumstances may be distinctly understood, I
will lint transcribe a statement which has lately appeared in the
public prints, and then proceed with my remarks.
" The Countess of Moira, in a letter published in the Archnoli^ia,
mentions that a human body was found under moss eleven feet deep,
in an estate in Ireland, belonging to the EorL The body was com-
pletely clothed in garments made of hair, which were quite fresh, and
not at all decayed ; and though hairy vestments evidently point to a
period extremely remote, before the introduction of sheep and the
use of wool, yet the body and clothes were in no way impaired"
I regard this discovery as one of manifest importance, because it
tends, and in a most remarkable degree, to establish the veracity of
those mouldering remnants of the records of the ancient inhabitants
of Britain, that are now rapidly hastening to decay. I mean the
scattered remnants of the Scythio^aelic manuscri pts of Eri (Ireland),
and the Celtic of the Cyury (Welsh). Nor shall I despair of adverting,
with some success, to the records of classic history, in support of
those truths which our native histories afford us, so far as the limits
of my cursory paper will allow.
9-3
132 Miscellaneous Antiquities: British Period.
One of the first circumstances that occurs to my mind, in perusing
the particulars of this communication, is the assumed idea that the
vestments being composed of hair instead of wool, must point to a
period long anterior to the use of wool, and consequently to the
introduction of sheep into Ireland
In my work on British Quadrupeds, published a few years ago, I
have entered into the history of that useful animal the sheep ; and
had the intended supplements to those works appeared, the world, I
conceive, would not have now remained in doubt as to the sheep
being an aboriginal or indigenous quadruped of the British isles, and
consequently that it did not owe its existence in Ireland, or in Britain,
to any foreign introduction. Among the Isles of Britain, I com-
prehend the land of Ireland on the west, and Great Britain eastward,
with many other lands once connected with them, that exist no longer,
the remembrance of which is preserved, however, in the historical
memorials of the ancient Britons, and the Irish as well as Saxons.
It is not likely that those researches which I have now in manu-
script will be ever published; and if therefore the following
observations, selected therefrom, should be the means of dissipating
errors, or misconceptions, yourself and the public are perfectly
welcome to them, and the object of my writing will be fully answered*
I should imagine it could be no matter of difficulty to define the
animal of whose fur these vestments of hair is composed ; and this
known, would assbt conjecture, if not conduct to facts. The cata-
combs of Egypt furnish the remains of quadrupeds, birds, reptiles,
and insects, all which at this remote distance of time enable us at
once to speak with certainty as to the identical beings to which they
have belonged ; and a more explicit mention of the kind of hair of
which these vestments are composed, would in like manner assist us
in the elucidation of this remarkable object of curiosity. I have
said enough to show that, if composed of the wool of sheep, these
vestments, in my opinion, might be nevertheless of very ancient date
and even anterior to any fabrication composed of other materials the
growth of Britain.
It may be remembered that a writer of the last century, the cele-
brated Mr. Pennant, in accordance with popular prejudice, has
advanced that the ancient inhabitants of Britain, if not absolutely
destitute of clothing, had no other dress than a sheep's skin hung
upon their shoulders ; the fleecy side of which was worn next to the
skin of the wearer in winter for the sake of warmth, and for coolness
the reverse side in summer.
Whence ideas so humiliating to the character of that hardy race of
men, who were our forefathers, have arisen, it would be beneath us to
inquire. I shall be content to say that the assertion is wholly destitute
of truth. And if Mr. Pennant, the asserter of such absurdities, and
who either did possess, or is believed to have possessed, an ample
On the Clothing of the Ancient Britons. 133
knowledge of the Greek and Latin writers, had read them with
attention, he would have discovered abundant reason for withholding
such assertions.
The page of classic history will assure us, that at the very period
to which such remarks allude, as to the destitute condition of the
ancient Britons, the classic writers were reproaching the effeminacy of
their own warriors for their indulgence in British and Gaulish luxuries.
And we have a distinct reference to this fact in the woollen cloths or
mats of British manufacture introduced by the Romans into their
camps, because before that period it was said the Roman warrior was
contented to rest his limbs stretched out upon the bare ground, or
upon a few dried leaves. We have thus a decided indication of the
woollen cloths of British fabrication, as mats and carpets, and articles
of bedding, among the Romans, and we have testimony enough of
the use of woollen as articles of dress among the Britons. Nor is
Grecian history altogether silent as to the fabrication of felts made
by the Britons, and to other circumstances of far more importance to
the character of polished life. I cannot now enter upon quotations,
or I should be under no difficulty in showing that a kind of cloth or
felt, composed of hair, and hardened by being steeped in sour wine,
was usually worn under the armour of brass or other metal by the
Grecian heroes, and we have something like evidence that such felts
were fabricated by the Britons. I further think I should be under no
great difficulty in proving, that in very early ages, anterior to the
invasion of Britain by the Romans, there were marts for the sale of
woollen cloths, as well as tin, at a point of Ireland far more south
than exists at present, and also in the western part of the principality of
Dun-ma-niac, a tract of land once situated to the west of the Lizard's
Point, the present extremity of Cornwall, both which in the lapse of
ages have been lost in the sea. And something of the same kind
may be identified from record to have existed on the Gaulish coast,
the ancient Armorica, the Lower Brittany of our days (Basse Bretagne
of the French) ; a tract inhabited in ancient times by the Celtic
Britons, or, as now called, the Welsh, and which country was governed
by the Welsh princes, as the ancient Cornwall was by those of Ireland.
Thus in those remote days the Greeks and Romans were accustomed
to resort to our shores for the sake of traffic, and this could not be
for the purchase of sheepskins, since the sheep was an inhabitant of
Greece and Italy as well as Britain, as every classic reader must be
aware. Perhaps it may be less generally known that the arfang (or
broad-tailed animal) of the Celtic Britons, the beaver of our days,
was formerly an inhabitant of this country, and that the felt of the
true beaver was among the ancients an article of much request, as it
is among ourselves for hats to this day. The furs also of other qiiad-
rupeds were in use as articles of dress, as appears from the ancient
laws of the Cymry, or Welsh ; but the rank and condition of the
134 Miscellaneous Antiguilies : British Period.
wearer was to be considered ; the ermine could be worn only by the
higher classes ; that of the wild cat distinguished those of a lower
grade in society. Bv the code of laws established by Howd Dola
about the year 9501 but which were in reality a concentration and
revisal of laws far more ancient, the cleigy were permitted to wear
catskin as a kind of fur or trimming, but nothing of greater cost I
could advance much more upon this subject, but enough I hope has
been said to show that whether the vestments in which this body was
found enveloped were of wool or hair, would not in any manner
identify the period of the deposition of these mortal remains. The
subsequent observations may, however, perhaps assist to explain the
mystery in a manner still more satisfactory than the foregoing.
Those who have been at the trouble of investigating the ancient
records of the land, which have survived to our time, will be aware
that the governing princes of Ireland were always chosen by the
voice of the people ; and that the only restriction was, that they
must be elected from certain families denominated the royal tribes or
septs. And that among the number of those princes, one was
chosen by all the States under the title of Erimoun, or supreme chief
ruler ; and it was the duty of this chief ruler to hear all complaints
of the people against their respective princes, and if the alleged
complaints were well founded, he was empowered to demand a force
from each of the other princes collectively sufficient to subdue the
tyrant, or to reduce him to a just observance of the laws established
by the States. His life, except under peculiar circumstances of
treason against these States, was safe ; but if his oppressions over that
portion of the people whom he had been chosen to govern demanded
exemplary punishment, the Erimoun or supreme chief had the
authority of those combined States to degrade him from the rank of
princes. He was no longer allowed to wear the mantle or robe of
seven colours by which the families of the royal tribes were distin-
guished, and his beard was shaven off; and by this mark of
degradation he was reduced from the rank of princes to the condition
of a slave. It will presently appear that the hair thus shaven or cut
off from such degraded rulers, has been manufectured into a robe or
vestment by the Erimoun or supreme chief, and worn by him as
a testimony of his triumph over such oppressors. May we not, then,
in this ancient custom identify the m]^tery of this circumstance
which has excited so much curious speculation ?
In taking this view of the subject, it may be presumed that I am
considering these remains of mortality to be those of a man. But
I should add that if it were otherwise, it would be no absolute proof
against the probability of these conjectures. A body so invested in
garments composed of hair might be that of a sovereign princess,
who, in like manner, had triumphed over her enemies, and wore such
robe as a testimony of her victories. It is true that the male line of
On the Clothing of the Ancient Britons. 135
the royal tribes in Ireland were usually chosen to rule, yet at the
same time there were exceptions. And did the limits of this
inquiry permit, I could point out a family of the ancient dynasty of
Irish princesy in which the line of succession had been in the female
branch, and whose simame to this day demonstrates the fact And
it may be added, that it was by the simame only that those tribes
were recognised or indicated, nor did the introduction of Christianity
in subsequent ages occasion any alteration of the ancient custom ; the
reigning monarchs of Ireland were distinguished only by theii
sirname to the latest times.
It was from these ancient laws of Ireland, with regard to female
succession, that the laws of Scotland emanated, and even those of
Britain took their origin. The renowned Boadicea, who so gallantly,
though so unsuccessfully, resisted the Roman invaders of the
country, is a demonstrative evidence of the right of female succession
among the ancient Britons ; nor was the right of female succession to
the throne of Scotland, according to its ancient laws, more disputable
than that of English princesses who have subsequently sat on the
throne of Britain, in conformity with the laws of England. Were I
at liberty to proceed further, I could adduce sufficient proof of this
right of succession in the female line deriving its origin, in the first
instance, from the parental care of an Irish chieftain for his only
daughter, in contradistinction to the laws of the neighbouring Gaulish
states, which recognised only the male line, and of which we have an
evidence in the laws of France to this day. Those conversant with
the ancient history of that country need not be informed that the
territories of modern France combine a number of the Gaulish states
with the Celtic of Armorica, or Lower Brittany. This digression may
be requisite, to show that whether these remains, or any others that
may be discovered hereafter so invested in garments of hair, should
prove to be those of male or female, will in no manner discoun-
tenance my first approximation.
Perhaps in vefhturing so far into the retrospect of the ancient
history of the land of Britain, my remarks may have awakened some
attention. I hope they have ; and that it will hence become obvious
that there are other historians of this country that deserve considera-
tion, as well as those whose names are more familiar, and that the
testimony of those least known may best assist us in the research
to which our attention is now directed. My attention so far has been
confined chiefly to the customs of ancient Ireland, and I wish now to
add that the testimony of the ancient historic evidences of the
Cambro-Britons proves that the customs and laws of these people bore
a striking analogy with those of ancient Ireland. Nor will this
similitude appear remarkable, when it is remembered that the dynasty
of Irish princes had, at an early period, filled the throne of
sovereignty among the states of Britain. It was thb line of princes
136 Miscellaneous Antiquities: British Period.
that gave the Britons their immortal Caradoc, better known as
the Caractacus of Livy; and the Gael-na-Gael of Albanac, or
ancient Scotland, which the Romans have so adroitly neutralized
from the Gaelic language into Galgalus.
We now approach a point which I conceive may tend in a great
measure, if not entirely, to elucidate the mystery under contempla-
tioa We read in those remains of ancient British history, the
Triads, of a powerful prince of the Britons named Rhita-Gawr, who
is ranked as one of the three opposers of tyranny, that is, of the
wrongdoings of petty t^nts, over whom, as supreme chief, he held
the balance of power m Britain, like the Erimoun of Ireland : nor
does it appear to be altogether improbable that he might be himself
of the race of Ireland, whom the Britons had chosen for the purpose
of subduing rebellion among the native princes. Of Rhita-Gawr it is
recorded that he had reduced a number of these princes to the rank
of slavery, and having cut off their beards as a mark of degradation,
ordered a vestment to be made of the hair, and which robe he wore
as a trophy of his victories over them during life, and might possibly
have been buried therein.
If these remarks should tend to explain the mystery of the dis-
covery of a body so enveloped in vestments composed of hair,
I would further add that the mode of sepulture among the Irish, as
with the Britons, varied according to the circumstances of their death.
The warrior who fell in battle, if his party remained masters of the
field, was most commonly interred upon the spot, and " the stone
raised over him," ie.^ the cromlech ; or if the warrior fell in an un-
propitious contest with unsullied honour, his body was generally
ransomed from the victors, and deposited by his friends in some
other place. There are instances on record of the body of a
favourite chief or warrior having been ransomed for its weight in gold,
and thus acquiring the epithet of a ^* golden corpse,^* This relates, so
far as our information goes, to the CamtH-o-Britons ; but it was
probably the same with the Irish. Among the monarchs of Ireland,
we have an instance of one at an early period, who had died upon his
bed covered with an outstretched skin of a marine animal that had
been caught in the contiguous sea, and which I conceive to be
a kind of seal. He died from the ill effects of the damp of the skin,
and being sewn up in the skin, was interred therein. This interment
of the body in the hairy skin of an animal of the seal tribe would
not be very different from that in vestments of hair. The whole,
collectively considered, seems to lead to a conclusion that these
mortal remains which we have been considering, are those of a
human being who had either fallen accidentally into the moss, or who
had far more probably been interred therein, if the moss were not of
more recent formation, and which to me appears to be the most
plausible conjecture of either. The vestments composed of hair may
Ancient British Shield. 137
further lead to some conclusion, for if it were of human hair it
would induce persuasion of the high rank of the individual, and
afford an evidence of an early age, though not of one so very
remote as has been generally believed, nor for the same reason.
£. Donovan.
Ancient British Shield*
[1865, FM II., /A 770-772]
During the very low water in the Thames in the month of Sep-
tember, 1S64, a boatman perceived in the bed of the river between
Hampton and Walton a round object, the nature of which he was at
first unable to discern, but after using his boat-hook for some time,
he brought to the surface the bronze shield, a drawing of which I
send you.
It is a tarian or shield of the ancient Britons, and may safely be
considered as belonging to the troops of Cassivelaunus, who opposed
Caesar's passage across the river at or near that place in 45 B.a
The discovery of this relic adds one more to the three examples
already known. Two have been found in Wales, and one previously
in the bed of the Thames.
It is ornamented with twelve concentric circles, which, like the
nineteen found on the Welsh types, may or may not have an
astronomic reference. Between each circle is a number of studs,
but these are larger and less numerous than those on the Welsh
shields, and differ materially from the one previously found in the
Thames, so that the specimen is altogether unique.
The word *' tarian " is supposed to be derived from the Welsh verb
tariana^ *' to clash," and under that name is referred to in many a
Welsh adage :
" Goreu tarian Cyviawnder."
" The best shield is righteousness."
" Nid amsifyn ond tarian."
" The only defence is a shield."
But these and other lines I might quote convey ideas altogether
too modem to be satisfactory, and I cannot see why the Tyrian
merchants who first imported these things into Britain before the
first century might not have given their name to them. It is also
called in the WgIsYi ysgttiyd. This, however, is only the LsLtin scu/um^
but under this term it is frequently mentioned by the bardic writers of
the sixth and later centuries, —
** Oez ysgwn jrsgwyd twn,"
" Uplifted was the broken shield." — Cjmuhtf,
They are also said to have been fabricated of gold, —
** Aer ysgwn aur ysgwyd oes."
'* The stay of slaughter with the golden shield was he." — SU%yn Vars.
138 Miscellaneous Antiquities: British Period.
No such thing, however, is yet known to have been discovered,
and golden may only refer to the colour of the brass, and not to the
material of the shield's construction, a conclusion the colour of this
one would seem to warrant ; but the loss of the thirteen first books
of Ammianus Marcellinus has left so much darkness around every-
thing that relates to the aboriginal inhabitants of Britain that the
frequent recurrence of their remains betraying great advancement in
the arts, contrasted with our previously formed ideas of an utterly
barbarous people, is most perplexing. Nor are the few notices of
Britain we possess more consistent Gildas, speaking of them in the
fourth century, says that the Romans gave *' energetic counsel to the
timorous natives, and left them patterns by which to manufacture
their arms;'' an assertion quite irreconcileable with the numerous
defensive arms discovered in the Thames, which are evidently of the
period of Csesar's invasion and before the first century.
Herodian, a Roman soldier and a Greek historian of the middle of
the third century, in his description of the Britons in the time of
Severus, says : " They are a very warlike and bloody people ; their
arms are only a narrow shield and a lance with a sword that hangs
at their naked side." Of the sword and the lance we have abundant
instances, but how are we to reconcile the narrow shield with the
circular form only discovered? The author says he was an eye-
witness to what he has written, and yet he makes no mention of the
axe or celt, by far the most numerous of the British weapons
known.
The memory of Caesar's conflicts was long preserved among the
Britons, and is alluded to in a curious ode in praise of Llewelyn ap
Grufydd, composed by Llygad Gwr about the year 1270 :
" like Julius Caesar is the rapid progress of the arms of Grufydd's heir,
his crimson lance is stained with gore."
It is scarcely worth while reviving the old disputed question of the
precise locality of Caesar's passage across the Thames [see Note 20],
but I was much struck with the appearance of Moreford (pointed
out to me by Mr. Milner, of East M olesey, the owner of the shield)
not far from the spot where it was discovered. Moreford is clearly
nothing but the Welsh Mawr-for^ "the great pass," but this spot
does not seem to have excited the attention it would appear to
deserve.
I am, etc. A. C Kirkmann.
Bronze Weapons.
[1847. Par/ //.,/. 441.]
A short time ago, in quarrying stones near Saint Pagan's for the
South Wales Railway, were discovered at a depth of about 3 feet
from the surface two spear-heads, Ave battle-axes, and a small piece
Ancient British Torques. 139
of the blade of a sword. The spear-heads and battle-axes are of
copper ; the former are about a foot long ; and the latter average in
weight from 10 to 16 ounces.
Antient British Torques.
[1800^ //. 817, 818.]
Travelling lately through Hertfordshire, I was shown a drawing
(unfortunately all that now remains) of the British torques; and,
having collected some information relative to the discovery of this very
curious and singular ornament of our ancestors, I think it desirable
to preserve the remembrance of its discovery ; for which purpose I
send you a reduced copy (exactly one-third size) of the original
torques, which, I doubt not, you wUl have engraved speedily (see fig.
2). It may not be superfluous just to mention here, that the torques
(used both by the Gauls and Britons) was worn round the neck ; and,
being only worn by persons of distinction, was generally of gold.
Boadicea had a great one of that precious metal ; and we read that
Virdomarus wore one that was fastened behind with hooks, and which
fell off when the conqueror cut off his head. The subject of our
present inquiry was most probably forced open sufficiently to pass
over the neck, and then closed, there being no appearance of any
fastening ; and, from the circumstance of its having been broken at
tf, where the soldering appeared very distinct, and with all the rude-
ness of a very early period, it is not improbable that it might have
been broken by this very means.
This choice morsel of antiquity was found in May, 1787, by one
Izaac Bennett, a labourer, upon a fium near Mardox, about 2\ miles
from Ware, in '* hollow ditching," a piece of land called the Brick-
ground. He discovered it about 2 feet below the surface, lying in a
bed of strong clay, and, through haste in taking it up, broke it where
marked in the drawing b. The general dimension of the torques
was 5-i6ths of an inch; at the extremities nearly i inch, and the
ends somewhat concave. The whole weight 13 oz. 15 dwt& Troy,
and the quality of the gold good.
In a few days after the discovery of this ornament, the labourer
brought it to a watch-maker in Ware ; who, desirous of knowing the
fineness of the gold before purchasing it, sent a specimen to London
for the purpose of having it assayed. In the interim, perhaps from a
fear of having it claimed by the lord of the manor, the poor fellow sold
his prize to a Jew for ;^2o (scarce half its value in metal) ; and being
instantly consigned to the crucible, every trace of this great curiosity
had been lost; but, fortunately, the watch-maker made a correct
drawing of it while in his possession, preserving also the memoranda
from which the present account is principally composed. Na 3 is
an enlarged drawing of the ornament upon the two extremities.
I40 Miscellaneous Antiquities: British Period.
Ancient British Collar, Found in Lancashire.
Ii«43. P«rtL,pp. 593-5^1
By the kind pennission of the owner, James Dearden, of Orchard,
Rochdale, Esq., I beg leave to avail myself of your old and valued
publication to record the discovery of an ancient British collar (see
the plate annexed), and which, as a perfectly unique specimen of the
arts amongst the aboriginal inhabitants of our island, will, I trust, be
interesting to your general readers, and perhaps help to throw some
additional light on the habits and customs of the Britons, prior to
their entire subjugation by the Romans.
This most interesting relic of antiquity was found by some labourers
in removing the decayed trunk of an old oak tree, near Handle Hall,
the ancient seat of the Dearden £unily ; under the roots of the tree
was observed a large flag-stone, which it seems curiosity induced the
labourers to disturb, when beneath thb flag, and lying immediately
on the surface, the collar was discovered.
The material is of bronze or mixed metal, that apparently differs
in no particular from the swords, celts, spear heads, and other known
works of art manufactured by the Britons or their instructors the
Phoenicians. It is made to fit the naked neck, the opening being
between the first and second bead on each side, and weighs i lb.
5 02. The workmanship is exquisite, and in some respects resembles
that of the British corslet of gold, discovered in Flintshire in 1833,
and figured in the Archseologia, vol xxvL, p. 428. In general appear-
ance the beads or knobs imitate the twisted torques, and the zig-zag
ornament, scarcely ever omitted in works of British art, is carried
round the outer edge with a beauty not to be surpassed.
That this great curiosity is correctly attributed to the ancient Britons
may be affirmed with tolerable certainty. Independently of the
material of which it is constructed, and in which so many British
remains are continually discovered, its fabrication is strongly cha-
racteristic of the best works of British art already known, and the
abundant authority for the use of such an ornament amongst the
Britons seems to put the question beyond a doubt When Caractacus
was taken before Claudius, the spoils in bracelets, rings, chains, and
other personal ornaments of gold carried before him, were immense ;*
and we are told that in the north, where gold was not to be procured,
bronze and even iron was used instead, of which the Britons were not
a little proud, whence Strutt infers the use of such ornaments amongst
the Britons to have been of great antiquity.t Pliny expressly mentions
the massy gold neck-chains of the women,! and Herodian tells us
that the Britons wore collars made from the teeth of the sea-horse,
• «« Tacit. Annal." lib. 12, cap. 8. + "Chronicle," vol. i. 275.
X « Nat. Hist." i. 33. c. I.
Antiquities Discovered near Bridgewater. 141
as also from iron and bronze. [The remainder of the article is purely
speculative, and is therefore not printed.]
A. C KiRKMANN.
Antiquities Discovered near Bridgewater.
[1840, Pari II., pp. 187-188.]
A few weeks since, as workmen were cutting peat in the Edington
Turbary near Bridgewater, they, at about 3 feet beneath the surface,
discovered a deposit of British Antiquities, consisting of six celts, five
knives, one torques, one armilla, one fibula, two rings, and a few
other pieces, the uses of which do not appear. These antiques are
of brass, and in the best possible state of preservation. The celts are
of the usual form, but vary in size ; the torques is wreathed : the
armilla and fibula fluted and slightly ornamented; the knives (if
knives they are) were flat on the under surface, but ribbed on the
upper to give them additional strength ; one of these had never been
brought to an edge, aAd is in the same perfect state as when taken
from the mould in which it was cast Of this and of the two rings I
enclose drawings made to the actual size. I do not remember before
seeing any articles like them.
The box in which these antiques were enclosed was formed out of
a solid piece of wood ; it fell to pieces on exposure to the air.
Spear-heads, swords, and celts are often found in these bogs, but I
am not aware of any number of such curiosities having until now been
met with together.
These antiques are in the possession of Mr. Murch, of Edington,
on whose land they were found.
Yours, etc. Samuel Hasell.
Antique Ornaments.
[1841, Ar//.,/. 8a.]
As workmen were lately digging a new paint-pit at Llanlinna, near
Amlwych, they discovered within 3 feet of the surface a stone urn or
coffin, on opening which they found a human skeleton in a high state
of preservation, measuring the extraordinary length of 7 feet 6 inches.
The skeleton throughout was quite proportional to its length, and in
very perfect condition. The urn appears to have been made from
the Aberdovey limestone, and had the appe^urance of being much
corroded by time. From the rude nature of this urn, it seems
probable that the body had been first laid in the grave and limestone
placed round its sides and on the top only, which, from the length of
time they had lain under ground, had become cemented together.
A few days ago, a farmer discovered in a bank in a b^g, in the
townland of Kinnigo, near Armagh, a beautiful antique bulla. It is
nearly the shape of a heart, and is made of fine gold. The back and
142 Miscellaneous Antiquities : British Period.
front are without ornament, but the sides are covered with fine twisted
wire, ending in loops at the top. Along with it he ' found a spear-
head, having a socket and holes for rivets ; a celt, with socket and
loop ; and two rings of cast brass, a large and a small one, linked
together. They are all in high preservation, and have been added to
the collection of Mr. Cony, Armagh.
Antiquities in Belfast.
[1821, PartlL^p. 157.]
Two antique golden crescents of a very large size have lately been
found in the neighbourhood of Belfast They are of pure gold, and
weigh about six ounces each. These relics, according to some anti-
quaries, were used as bells by the Druids in the celebration of their
heathen ceremonies, and the very fine tone produced by striking the
cup at the ends of the crescent seems to confirm that opinion. Near
the spot where these crescents were discovered are the remains of
two Druidical altars.
Celtic Remains in Dublin.
[1856, PartlL.p. 108.]
Several curious relics have been recently found within the town
walls of ancient Dublin, such as singularly ornamented combs, bronze
and iron fibulae, and implements used in the manufacture of those
curiously constructed wooden houses erected in that ancient locality
at a very remote era. Among the articles enumerated is an antique-
shaped signet-seal, supposed by a distinguished heraldic authority to
have belonged to the Lord-Deputy Essex, — time of Elizabeth. Several
of these relics have been collected by Mr. James Underwood, well
known for his former indefatigable exertions in amassing antiquarian
stores.
British Urn found at Storrington, Sussex.
[1830, Pdrt IL^ p, 18.]
I send you a sketch of a remarkably fine British urn, which was
discovered in 1826 on the Downs in the parish of Storrington, Sussex.
It measures 21 inches high, 13 broad at the top, and 6| at the
base, is of a dirty reddish-brown colour, and in a very good state of
preservation. This is the largest and best formed of any of the
British specimens I have seen.* Its thickness is three-quarters of an
inch, and its shape, considering it was made b^ the hand, very per-
fect. It was found, which is not uncommon, with its base or small
end upwards. The coarse cloth in which the bones were usually
deposited was entirely decayed, but the pin or brass fastening (also
* Of those enppraved in Hoare's *' Ancient Wilts," it most resembles that in
Tamuliy plate viii., vol. I, p. 81. There is much of the same aprig pattern on one
in Tumuli, plate xvL
British Urn found at Storrinqton, Sussex. 143
represented above) was in good preservation. The bones were white
and well burned
The difficulty of procuring perfect specimens of these rude funeral
vesseb of our ancestors is very great ; being half baked, or, as some
antiquaries imagine, baked only in the sun, they are so very soft,
that the utmost care must be exerted to prevent their falling to pieces.
Chalk seems to preserve them best, for I have never been able to
remove those in a perfect state which I have discovered in clay or
sand. It may not be out of place if I here remark that these urns
are often miscalled Roman, Danish, etc., when our present know-
ledge of pottery and sepulchral remains may more properly term
them British. All the Roman urns I have seen have been made of
much better materials, and appear to have been turned with a lathe.
I would wish to ask any of your learned correspondents if they
imagine the British ever burned their dead before the Romans in-
vaded this country. From my own observations, I should say it was
a form borrowed from the Romans ; and I conceive those tumuli in
which we find the skeletons, with stags' horns, the bones of dogs,
birds, etc, to be the most ancient form of burial that was adopted
in this isli^nd. We generally find these remains at the lowest part of
the tumulus, and the urns either in the centre or at the side ; and in
some it would appear that the urns were placed little more than just
under the turf; and indeed in many places I have seen well-burned
bones covered only with a stone, not more than a foot under ground,
and where there has not been the least shadow of an urn. There
has never, I believe, been any regular number of urns found in a
tumulus ; in some as many as fifteen or twenty, in others only one
or two. May we not suppose that, during the frequent battles which
the Romans must have had with the British, the British burned their
slain after the Roman custom, and put their bones in these rude
urns, placing them in the tumuli which had already been formed ?
Yours, etc. F. D.
Antient Metallic Vessel found in the River Severn.
[1825, Pari /., i^p. 417. 418-1
In the Monthly Magazine for April last, p. 218, a paper is inserted,
signed Jacobus, describing an antique metallic vessel, of a circular
form, said to have been found in the bed of the river Severn on the
9th of July last The communication is accompanied by a plate,
containing a copy of the figures, and descriptive lines engraved on
the inside of the vessel, of which a section is also shown.
The diameter of the vessel is stated to be 10^ inches, its internal
depth thirteen-sixteenths, and the thickness of the composition (re-
sembling bell-metal) of which it is made one-eighth of an inch.
The engraved designs on the inside form one central, and six sur-
144 Miscellaneous Antiqutites: British Period.
rounding circular apartments \ between each of the latter of which
is a triangular figure resembling the head of a female, with wings.
There is also an ornamented border round the central compartment,
and a kind of string course round the whole, near the rim of the
vessel, discontinued and recommenced at regular distances.
The figures in the circles appear to represent mythological stories,
and each circle has round it a Latin inscription. In the paper alluded
to the stories are explained, and the Latin inscriptions translated; but
not the least attempt is made to ascertain the age, history, or use of
the vessel, neither is it stated under what circumstances, by whom,
or in what part of the river Severn this ancient relic was discovered,
nor in whose possession the same now is.
It appears to me that the term vase made use of in the above paper
has been improperly applied with reference to this vessel, which, from
its shape and shallowness, may be more properly called a plate, dish,
or basin. Whether it was originally intended for religious, eleemo-
synary, domestic, or bacchanalian purposes, I leave to the discernment
and skill of others to determine, though I think it not improbable
that it may have been an offering dish or basin, such as that at Stan-
ford, of which an engraving and description may be found in Nash's
" History of Worcestershire," vol. iL, p. 367.
In making this communication, I indulge a hope that the pages of
so desirable a channel for antiquarian intelligence as the GeniUmatis
Magazine may not long be without an accurate and well-authenticated
engraving and description of so interesting a relic as that now under
consideration, with the addition of those matters of fact respecting
it which are at present wanting, and such remarks from some of your
learned and ingenious correspondents as may satisfactorily illustrate
its antiquity, history, and use.
George Yatbs.
Ancient Cooking UtensiL
[i779i>^. 4051406.]
The late Mr. Gostling, of Canterbury, was a worthy man, and
well respected for his good-nature and pleasantry ; but, at the same
time, he was very sanguine, and not a little opinionated, insomuch
that, when he had taken a thing into his head, it was not an easy
matter to drive it out He was a great collector of antiquities ; and,
in a long life, had amassed a considerable number of curious antique
articles. Amongst other matters, he had gotten a piece of household
furniture, of copper, which he was pleased to call a curfew ; and his
friends, on account of his years and good-humour, did not care to
contradict him. This implement has since been engraved in the
** Antiquarian Repertory," vol. i., p. 89, and F. G., who communicated
the drawing to the conductor of that work, having without scruple
Ancient Cooking Utensil. 145
adopted the old gentleman's notion of it, has described it as a curfew,
from its use of suddenly putting out a fire ; and says, " Probably
curfews were used in the time of William the Conqueror, who, in the
first year of his reign, directed that, on the ringing of a certain bell,
all persons should put out their fires and candles."
Now, sir, authors agree in the institution of the curfew-bell by
William the Conqueror; and it was doubtless a good stroke of policy,
imitated afterwards by others on like occasions ;* but they call it the
cotfeubell^ or the corfeu^ in which latter short expression either bell is
understood, or the time of night, or the injunction for putting out the
fire, is meant However, not a word is said, by any of them, of any
particular implement made use of for the purpose of extinguishing the
fire ; nor do we meet with the name of coffeu^ as an implement, in
any ancient writer whatsoever; and thereupon I incline to think
there never was any such.
But, you will ask, for what use, then, could this old piece of
household serve? I answer, you have heard of baking bread or
cakes, or other matters, under embers ;t and the same is practised
nowadays in most countries where they burn wood. They make
clean a place in the hearth, lay the bread upon it, cover it with some-
thing (this implement, for example) to keep the ashes from it, and
then rake a proper quantity of coals and ashes upon it This will
account for those " others of the kind still remaining in Kent and
Sussex,"! and, in my opinion, for the true use of Mr. Gostling's im-
plement, which does not appear to me, to judge from its elegance in
the draught, to be of any such great antiquity as the practice of the
corfeu introduced by the Conqueror, since this ceased, as I suspect,
temp. Henr. Primi (for so I understand those words of Knyghton,
'* Lucemarum usum tempore Patris sui intermissum restituit de nocte
in curia sua''§), though the ringing of the bell continued, and even
does so to this day, in many places.
Yours, etc T. Row
Druid's Hook.
[1830^ F^irt ll.^p. 227.]
In the twelfth volume of Archsologia, p. 414, is described, and in
pi. 51, f. 8, represented, a slender instrument of brass, resembling
gold, about 12 inches in length, tapering to a slender point, where it
is curved. It enlarges a little near the handle, which finishes at that
* "Antiquary's Repertory," p. 216. As to the use of coffeu in ciher countries,
see Du Fresne, v. Isnitegiuin.
t Genesis xviii. ; and Bisihop Patrick ad loc. Calmet, Diet. v. Eating.
X ** Antioaary's Repertory," p. 90.
i Hen. knyghton, inter X. Script, col. 2374. See Stow, Hist., p. 135.
Malmesbury, p. 156, who, for temjiore pairis^ has tempore frairis, Knyghton,
however, evidently transcribes Wilham 0I Malmesbury.
VOL. VI. 10
146 Miscellaneous Antiquities: British Period.
end with a knob, enclosing a piece of amber. A little beyond the
swelling part are the remains of an eye, which, when perfect, served
most probably to attach it to a riband. This was found near the
river Fowey, in Cornwall, 10 fathoms under ground at the bottom of
a mine, and was supposed to be a Druid's hook, used for gathering
mistletoe.* In addition to the above, I beg leave to observe that in
the '* Vetusta Monumenta,'* the first volume and the last plate, is an
engraving which represents a meeting of the persons belonging to the
Court of Wards and Deliveries,'t sitting round a table. In the middle
is probably the President, or Master of the Court ; and next to him,
on his right, a person having in his hand what appears to be an
instrument similar to that above mentioned, found in Cornwall, and
which we may conjecture to be a badge of office, though in the
letterpress attending the engraving no mention is made of the circum-
stance.
Should any of your correspondents be able to reconcile the above
circumstance, I shall be much obliged
J.L.
Curious Particulars Concerning Wild Cats in Britain.
[1774,/. 165.]
The dog is thought to be an indigenous animal of this island, as we
find mention made of British dogs in the most early accounts we have
of the country \X but it is not so with the cat, as appears from the
laws of Hoel Dda, who died a. d. 948, where a considerable value
is put upon them, and the property of them is secured by penalties.§
As the cat is a beast of prey, and particularly fond of birds, the
creature is apt to stroll into the fields, and if it meets with success
there, will often become wild, without returning home. Hence came
a breed of wild cats here, which formerly were an object of sport to
huntsmen. Thus, Gerard Camvile, 6 John, had special license to
hunt the hare, fox, and wild cat, throughout all the King's forests ||;
and 23 Henry III. William, Earl Warren, by giving Simon de Pier-
pont a goshawk, obtained leave to hunt the buck, doe, hart, hind,
hare, fox, goat, cat, or any other wild beast, in certain lands of
Simon's. \
* See Pliny, "Nat. Hist.," b. xvi., cap. 44 where it is said that the priest cut
the mistletoe off with a golden hook or bill (falce aure&), but the instrument in
question has no cutting edge, being perfectly round the whole of its length.
t This Court exist^ till the year 1660, when a perpeiual excise on ale, beer,
etc., was enacted by Parliament, on a comfnutation with Charles II. for the
abolition of the said Court of Wards and Liveries.
X Mr. Pegge's "Essay on Coins of Cunobalin," p. 97.
§ Mr. Pennant's " British Zoology," i., p. 46.
II Sir W. Dugdale's " Baron." L, p. 627.
if Ibt^, ii., p. 457. See also, i., p. 701 ; Blount's ''Tenures," p. 60^ 104 ; Gun-
ton's " Hist, of Peterb.," p. 151, 160; Mr. Pennant, i., p. 48.
Antiqvities near Lichfield. i/^y
But it was not for diversion or sport alone that this animal was
pursued in chase ; for the skin was of value, being much used by the
nuns in their habits, as a fur. Hence, in Archbishop William Cor-
boyl's Canons, anno 1127, art 10, it is ordained, *That no abbess
or nun use more costly apparel than such as is made of lamb or cats'
skins. "'^ But their furs, I am told, are more valuable in North
America.
The wild cat is now almost lost in England, but is described by
Mr. Pennant, L, p. 47. And as no other part of the creature but the
skin was ever of any use here, it grew into a proverb, that you can
have nothing of a cat but her skin.
T. Row.
Antiquities near Lichfield
[iSiS, Pari II,, f.zoS']
The articles of which I have sent you drawings were found near
some lands known by the singular names of *' Hie Filius and
Christian's " field ; so called, according to tradition, from having been
the place where the early converts to Christianity had used to assem-
ble, and where the massacre from which Lichfield derives its name
took place. Some writers have derived it from the Saxon leccian, to
water; but Bede, Ingulphus, etc, from licfu, a dead body, which
derivation is confirmed by the great number of bones discovered
mixed with fragments of pottery and pieces of iron four feet beneath
the surface of the earth upon a bed of clay, on which have since
grown and decayed trees which, from their remaining roots, must
have been of considerable size. Four horse-shoes, pierced for nails
at the toes as well as sides, and a stone ball of the diameter of four
inches, were likewise found. The mixture of domestic articles with
the military weapons proves them the reliques of people surprised in
their retreat rather than the remains of a battle ; and being upon the
spot pointed out by tradition, may serve to rescue the legend from
being ** consigned to the nursery of papal superstition '' as a mere
monkish fable.
C. R S.
Fig. I. A stone dish, one foot diameter, used, perhaps, for grinding
com, was placed in the earth as a cover to Fig. 2, of smooth, red
earthenware, broken by the eagerness of the workmen to examine
the contents, which proved earth only. The black spots are
metallic.
Fig. 3. The head of a weapon in good preservation, the wooden
staff was broken off near the head ; the iron is 21 inches in length.
Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, are weapons found in 181 7 in the foundation of
one of the canons* houses on the north side of the Close, with some
bones and broken armour.
* Mr. Johnson's " Collection of Laws, Canons, etc," A 1 127.
10 — 2
148 Miscellaneous Antiquities: British Period.
Unknown British Trackway Discovered.
[1822, Part /., //. 26-28.]
Mr. Fosbroke's interesting work, entitled " Ariconensia," having
introduced a conversation concerning the Roman roads in Hereford-
shire, a gentleman communicated the following account of a fine
British trackway, improved by the Romans, hitherto, I believe, un-
known — at least, unnoticed in print, for Herefordshire contains British
and Roman antiquities hitherto unexplored.
This trackway commences at Magna or Magnis (Kenchester, no
longer misnomered Ariconium), and proceeds from thence to the
Wear, where it crosses the Wye, and so on to Madley and Madely, a
well-known British village, the ancientry of which is displayed by Mr,
Fosbroke (" Ariconensia," p. 42), from the " Life of S. Dubricius."
From Madley it runs to Stoney Street, and so on to New Street
The meaning of these appellations is still conspicuous. The part of the
road between the two places last named is distinguished by a Roman
causeway, the other parts being mostly hollow, but characterized, like
the Via Julia, by a ruined pavement of large stones. From New
Street it goes to Moorhampton Park, beyond which, at New Court,
a place situate between the Old Court Dowlas and the Golden Vale,
it is a deep hollow. Moorhampton signifies Marsh-camp-town, and
the circumstance of the causeway being thrown up before it, and the
deep hollow behind it, leads to an inference that here was one of the
marshy fortifications of the Britons, so usual in their tactics, the
military defence of which was purposely destroyed, according to the
Roman practice, by founding the causeway, a favourite custom with
Severus in particular. From Moorhampton it proceeds to Buckton,
a village near Brampton Brian, and from thence to Long Town,
under the Black Mountains, or Hatterell Hills. The communicator
traced it no further. The whole distance is about seventeen miles.
It is straight all the way.
This trackway, at one end, seems to have originally communicated,
as being a work of the Britons, with their camp at Credenhill, justly
presumed to have been one of the grand posts of Caractacus ; and
from its size to have given the name of Magna Castra to the adjoin-
ing subsequent station of Kenchester. At the other end, by Buckton
and Brampton Brian, it is not far distant from Coxall Hill, or the
Gaer dykes, where the British hero was finally defeated. Thus an
additional particular is gained by this road to Mr. Fosbroke's elaborate
illustration of the campaigns of Caractacus and Ostorius. ('^Arir
conensia," pp. 14-16.)
Considerable difficulties attend the sites of certain Roman stations
in this vicinity. Caerleon (Isca Silurum\ Caerwent ( Venta SUurutn)^
and Abergavenny {Gobanium^ evidently derived from the river
Unknown British Trackway Discovered. 149
Gavenny), seem to be unquestionable. That Blestium was situated
at Monmouth and Burrium at the town of Usk cannot be so readily
admitted.
First, as to Blestium.
Some writers have placed Blestium at Longtown, which is quite
inconsiderate, for the thirteenth Iter of Antoninus from Caerleon to
Silchester shows that Blestium lay between the former place and
Gloucester, in a direction quite different. The route is from Caerleon
(Isca Silurum) to Burrium, called Usk (9 miles, only 7^), to Blestium,
placed by Horsley at or near Monmouth, 11 miles, and so to
Ariconium, the BoUatree, near Ross, 11 miles, from whence to Glevum,
Gloucester, 15 miles.
No village of any appellation approaching to the prefix syllable
BUs^ in Bles^AMvci (as the Celtic term was Romanized with the Latin
termination iufn) occurs at or near Monmouth, according to the
Gazetteer. But in Dk>mesday Book is the hundred of Blaches\dcfit^ in
which is the village of Stanton, Gloucestershire, not far from Mon-
mouth. Archdeacon Coxe says, '* The only road bearing positive
marks of Roman origin is that which leads from the left bank of the
Wye up the Kymin, passes by Stanton, and was part of the old way
from Monmouth to Gloucester." He also admits that there are
several indications there of a Roman settlement Indeed, there is a
place called Bury Hill, where four roads cross at right angles, con-
siderable entrenchments, a Druidical rocking scone, a sepulchral
cippus, eta; and the distance from Stanton to the Bollatree, turning
to the north in the vicinity of Michel Dean, is not more than the
1 1 miles in the Itinerary from Blestium to Ariconium. If so, the
Roman road did not run from Monmouth by Trewarn, eta, as Mr.
Fosbroke diffidently surmises (" Ariconensia," p. 23), though there
might be a British trackway in that direction. If, therefore, Blaches-
lawe suggested Bles^viva^ and Stanton, from its remains, has the best
local title to having been that station, its distance from the town of
Usk, if that be Burrium, is far too great for the 1 1 miles in the
Itinerary. But it is to be recollected that the town of Usk, though
undoubtedly of Roman occupation, is a mile and a half (if the road
be not modem) less from Caerleon than the distance in the Itinerary ;
and that Usk or Isca appears to have been a loose term, taken from
the river, not limited to the town, but to a large extent of fine British
posts and earthworks; and that Burrium ought to lie somewhere
beyond Pencamaur, where the Roman or British road to Blestium
commences, and is in a straight line from Caerleon by Pencamaur to
Ariconium. llie interesting compendium of Usk, given by Nichol-
son (" Cambrian Traveller,*' col. 13 13), corroborates the above hypo-
thesis :
"In the vicinity of Usk are antient encampments. Craeg y
Gaeryd, supposed to have been a Roman camp, is two miles north-
1 50 Miscellaneous Antiquities : British Period.
west from Usk, to the south of Pont-y-pool Road, upon the brow of
a precipice overhanging the east bank of the Usk. The site is over-
grown with thickets and brambles, and the entrenchments are in
many places 30 feet deep. Several tumuli are within the area, from
15 to 20 feet in height Mr. Coxe, in visiting this encampment,
passed the small torrent called Berdden, from which some writers
have derived the name of Burrium, as being placed at its confluence
with the Usk. Two other camps are upon the opposite side of the
river, to the east of the high road leading from Usk to Abergavenny.
Campwood, two miles from the town, above the wild and sequestered
common of Gwhelwg, b of an oval shape, enclosed by a single foss
and vallum 700 yards in circumference, wholly overgrown by wood.
(Either a British place of worship or Roman amphitheatre.) The
encampment of Coed-y-Bunedd is formed upon the summit of a
commanding eminence, at the extremity of Clytha Hills, about four
miles from Usk, to the west of the turnpike-road leading to Aber-
gavenny. It is 480 yards in circumference. The west and north
sides are precipitous, bounded by one entrenchment ; the other sides
are fortified with triple ditches and ram]>arts. The entrance is covered
by a tumulus (the Roman Tutulus or Clavicula — ' Hygin de castr.
Rom.'). Some foundations of towers at each end yet remain. It
was originally strengthened with walls. (Apparently a British post,
converted by the Romans into a castellum, or exploratory camp, for
it commands a fine view of the north of the country.) A chain of
these fortified posts seems to have stretched from Cat's Ash over the
ridge of land that terminates in the Pencamaur, supposed to have
been the site of a British, but more pro[>erly a Roman road, which
branched off from the line of the Julia Strata to Blestium. The
commencement of the line is at Coed-y-Caerau, in the hundred of
Caldecot, to the west of Caerleon, where are several encampments,
and beyond the Pencamaur, in the same direction at Wolves Newton,
are two. Cwit y Gaer is a small circular encampment, which appears
to have had its ramparts formed of stone, and the remains of walls
indicate that it was defended by bastion towers. It is about 190
feet in diameter, and surrounded by a double foss and vallum. (This
was seemingly a British castle like Trer-caeri, etc) Gaer-faur, lying
between Golden Hill and Defauden, is the largest encampment in
the county. It was the site of a British town. The depth of the
fosses and height of the valla are considerable."
Thus Nicholson. That these earthworks were originally, in the
main, posts connected with the defence of Caractacus, is probable.
They were also apparently outposts, afterwards occupied by the
Romans, as Castella (according to Caesar's usual plan), in defence of
Caerleon. Instances without number show that before parishes were
formed, places as extensive as our modern hundreds were characterized
by one denomination only. The distances in the Itineraries may
Unknown British Trackway Discovered. 151
therefore easily vary in some miles, if the mere site of a town or
village be the spot from which the admeasurement is taken.
Usk, and its whole vicinity, was occupied by the Roman military.
It subsequently formed, as it were, the suburbs of Caerleon, and
there is in the maps a straight line of road from Usk, through
Strignil and Pencamaur, to Sudbrook or Portskeurd, the great port
at the mouth of the Severn from the earliest asras to the reii^n of
Charles I., and about three miles across the river at high water from
the new passage. Here the Romans are presumed to have formed
their first station in Wales (Gough's "Camden," il 485, ed. 1786).
"Urbs Legionum" is the appropriate limited appellation given by
Giraldus to Caerleon, and Isca Castrum to Usk. The term " Isca
Silurum" of the Itineraries may therefore apply to the district of
Caerleon as far as Usk, and " Burrium " be seated in advance. There
is further proof of error. In Richard of Cirencester there is no such
distinct station as Burrium — " Bullium,'''' Burrium, Bultrum, Caer-
phylli Castle," being the* item in Stukeley's Index as one and the
same place.
S. Y. E.
British Antiquities of Kent.
[1844, Part /., pp. 377-380.]
During some late researches I have been making into the Druidical
vestiges in the kingdom, I have necessarily closely examined Caesar's
account of his invasion of Britain, and I am now convinced that he
never crossed the Thames at Coway Stakes, t nor marched to St,
Alban's. Perhaps the following remarks may lead to further research,
and incline some of your able correspondents to investigate the sub-
ject My opinion is that Caesar, unaware of the difference, miscalled,
or perchance mistook, the Med way, in lib. 5, a xviii., which runs into
the Thames, for the Thames itself.
After the conquest of the BritishJ fortress at Chartham Downs,§
Caesar marched by the great British trackway || which led to the grand
* Bullseum (Silunim) is not certainly located.
t Camden, Horefield's "Hist, of Lewes."
% " Ipse noctu progressus millia passuum circiter xii. hostium copias conspicatus
est. lUi equitattt atque essedis ad flumen (the Stour) progress!, ex loco superiore
nostros probibere, et proelium committere cceperunt. Repulsi ab equitatu, se in
sylvas abdiderunt, locum nacti ^gregii et natura et opere munitum, quem domestic!
belli, ut videbatur, causft jam ant^ prseparaverant : nam crebris arboribus succisis
omnes introitus erant praeclusi .... At milites legionis vii. testudine facti et
aggere ad munitiones adjecto, locum ceperunt, eosque ex sylvis expulerunt, paucis
vulneribus acceptis.** — Lib. v.,c. viii. For, bad Caesar crossed the Thaines, he would
not then have totally omitted to mention his previous passage of the Medway, a
river of much greater extent and magnitude than the Stour ; for the Medway was
not then confined within its present banks, but occupied the valley, rendering it
one vast quagmire.
§ Douglas, **Nenia Antiq." Vide account of the opening of the tumulus
containing the remains of Q. Laberius Durus.
il Fosbroke, ii.
152 Miscellaneous Antiquities: British Period.
Druid altar, at present vulgarly called Kit's Coty-house.'* It is now
a well-ascertained fact that long prior to the advent of the Romans,
the Britons had good roads intersecting the country from one Druid
temple to another. These roadsf were not constructed straight, like
those that superseded them some two centuries after, but, contrari-
wise, frequently diverged to the towns contiguous.
The Druidical erections on the banks of the Medway were as
magnificent and imposing as any in the world. There might be
found every appliance and ornament that their religion demanded to
awe and alarm its superstitious votaries. Prominently on the brow
of the hill stood the altar from whence the Arch-Druid, whilst offer-
ing to heaven the victim's reeking heart, declared the decrees of fate,
fiy the side of this cromlech stood a meinigwyr,} at times used as
a gorsedd, to explain the law to the assembled thousands. At the
foot of the hill, in the deep recesses of the sacred grove, was reared
the holy of holies,§ with the lustrating springs adjacent to a
kistvaen.
Arrived at the ford,|| Csesar found the Britons in great force
determined to dispute his passage, to render which more difficult,
they had driven sharp stakes into the bed of the river.H Here
Caesar was necessitated to fight a terrific battle, and at length his
legions, wading through the water up to their necks, forced the ford.
Adjacent was the town** where dwelt the Cenimagni, in whose terri-
* Thorpe, *<Custuinale Rof." 68 ; et Colebrook, "Ardueol." iL
f The Romans, when they could, used these roads ; in Kent, however, they
deviated from the ford and crossed the river at Rochester.
X " About a coit's cast from this monument lieth another great stone, much part
thereof in the ground, as fallen down where the same hath been affixed.*' — Stow,
" The demand of a few square feet for the growth of com, in a country with
millions of acres of waste land, would not permit its preservation." — "Old Eng-
land," p. 15.
§ Thorpe, "Cust. Rof." p. 68.
II The night before the passage of this ford, Csesar encamped at ** Debtling, where,
a few years since, some entrenched embankments were discovered at a distance of
about two miles in the direction of Bredhurst ; they formed nearly a square, with
a double vallum on the north side." — Lamprey's " Maidstone."
IT ^ Caesar, cognito consilio eorum, ad flumen Tamesin, in fines Cassivellauni,
ezerdtum duxit ; quod flumen uno omnino loco pedibus, atque hoc segrh, transiri
potest £6 quum venisset, animum advertit ad alteram fluminis ripam magnas
esse copias hostium instructas. Ripa autem erat acutis sudibus praenxis munita ;
ejusdemque generis sub aqui defixae sudes flumine tegebantur.'^Lib. v., c. xiv.
It does not appear that the stakes were shod with metal, or in fact anything else
but "sharp stakes," which in process of time, by the action of the current, would
necessarilv be swept away.
** " Elesford, the ford of Eccles, an ancient village near Aylesford, called
Aiglessa in Domesday Book. Tradition siill speaks of its having been a strong
and populous town, the cottages occupying its site being diiefly built of stones
from the foundation of its primitive houses." — Allport's "Maidstone," p. 17. A
British town, although very populous, was little more than a wood with a number
of straggling villages in it, ana surrounded with a ditdh and earthwork. — Cesar,
British Antiquities of Kent. r53
tones were comprised the holy fanes just enumerated An immediate
consequence of the victory was, that this tribe yielded allegiance to
the conqueror, and sent in their adhesion to his standard*
Caswallon, the British leader, in consequence of the desertion of
some of his allies, then retreated to his own town and fortress (the
remains of which still exist in the shape of an oval near Dartford),
in the centre of his tribe's territories (the Cassiif), where he was fol-
lowed by Caesar, and again defeated For
"Treason, like an old and eating sore,
Consumed the bones and sinews of his strength.
This British town was extremely large, as its boundaries may now be
traced, extending into no less than 6ve parishes, Wilmington, ^ Dart-
ford, Bexley, Sutton-at-Hone,§ North Cray.
Caesar then, c xviL, says ** that from them (the Cenimagni) he had
intelligence that he was not far from the capital of Caswallon, which
was situated amidst woods and marshes, and whither great numbers
of men and cattle were retired.*' This description precisely applies
to this spot, which is guarded in its front by the marshes of the
Darenth, and in the rear by those of the Cray. *' Thither he marched
with his legions, and although the place appeared to be exceedingly
strong both by nature and art, he resolved to attack it" Now, within
but a short distance of the road by which Caesar marched from Eles-
ford (the capital town of the Cenimagni), which road is still in exist-
ence, 2Sidfartly used to this day, stands a most conspicuous artificial
circular mound, at present covered with trees and shrubs, and called
Ruehill Wood II This was undoubtedly the position to which Caesar
alludes as admirably defended both by nature and art, and certainly
still exhibits a splendid specimen of early British military architecture
and skill. Even Hasted,ir but a slight observer of these subjects,
says, *' In the woods hereabouts there have been found quantities of
bricks and other building materials,'* which he hints to have been
** perhaps the remains of depopulation, occasioned by the wars be-
tween the houses of York and Lancaster." Had this hypothesis
lib. v., c. zvii. The houses were rather circular huts, half buried in the ground,
formed of wattled poles driven into the earth around a circular hole, fastened
together at top, and covered with sods, grass, or reeds, to exclude the rain.
Strabo says, '*The forests of the Britons are their cities; for, when they have
inclosed a very large circuit with felled trees, they build within it houses for
themselves, and hovels for their cattle."
* Caesar.
t Id. Unci, v., c. 21. Segonax, one of the four chiefs of Kent enumerated by
Caesar, doubtless governed the Segontiaci. By analogy, Caswallon ruled the
Cassii.
:{: In a meadow at no great distance from Ruehill are several tumuli.
§ The British road runs by Cold Harbour Farm in this parish.
I! On the southern side of Dartford Heath.
IF Hasted, L 234.
154 Miscellaneous Antiquities: British Period.
been at all founded in fact, tradition would most certainly have
handed down some legendary tale of the annihilation of a town 'so
recently as the wars of the Roses But Hasted has himself, in the
preceding page, utterly disproved his own supposition, by stating
that the manor of Ruehill* or Rowhill *' was in the reign of King
Edward I. in the possession of the family of Gyse," and concludes
the paragraph by giving its descent through the dilTerenc lords to
1778, when he published his '* History of Kent" That there are
great quantities of Roman *' bricks and other building materials,**
and nearly one hundred finely formed British excavations or pits
scattered through these woods, I have the confirmatory assurance of
S. Landale, Esq., a fellow labourer in the archaeological vineyard,
who has repeatedly noticed them whilst there shooting, and who
moreover informed me that I should find a mass of Roman brick-
work in a cart-lodge at Hook Green Farm (a building not a quarter
of a mile from Ruehill). It is therefore most probable that a
Roman mansion was there erected some years after the conquest of
Kent ; since the city of the Cassii was not at once destroyed after
the victories of Aulus Plautius (a.d. 43), but by degrees fell into
decay after the divergence of the road from the sea coast into the
better formed and more direct Watling Street, aided by the establish-
ment of the station of Noviomagus (Dartford), which by degrees
attracted and absorbed the aborigines, and gradually caused the
desertion and final total abandonment of the British city.
However, after the fall of his fortress of Tyrru, Caswallon, like a
skilful strategist, changed his tactics, and incited the chiefs in
Caesar's rear to attack the camp on the sea coast t Caesar was now
compelled to retrace his steps, and, as in the year before, was in such
haste to embark and return that he crowded his men (nothing loth)
into what ships he had, and sailed away 4
* Ruehill is evidently a corruption of the Celtic word Tyrru, which is from Twr,
a heap, an accumulation. Thus its modem name, with the merest alteration, has
descended to our time in utter defiance of the various languages imported by the
different masters of the land, Romans, Saxons, Danes, and Normans. The name
too, is expressive of an accumulation of material, or formation of an artificial
mound or earthwork. This mound, from its great altitude, was in the present
century selected by Government and used as a position for the site of a telegraph.
Adjoining to this mound, but quite detached, is a smaller earthwork or fortilage,
on the summit of which is a deep round excavation like a well, which, a labourer
on the l8th of March last informed me, at the bottom extended for some distance
and was stronq;ly arched ; it had then been but a few weeks before wattled round
to prevent accidents.
T Although the Segontiaci had made a peace with Caesar (lib. v., c xxi.) yet
Segonax joins (lib. v., c. xxii.) Cingetorix, Carmilius, and Taximagulas, in Cas-
wailon's confederacy to destroy the Roman invaders' fleet.
X Tacitus, writing more than a century after Caesar, distinctly says, that even
Caesar, the first who entered Britain with an army, although he struck terror into
tiie islanders by a successful battle, could only maintain himself on the sea coast —
that he was a discoverer rather than a conqueror. In fact, that he only saw a
small portion of the island.
British Antiquities of Kent. 155
According to the best expositors upon Caesar's Commentaries, he
could not have been more than thirty-two days in Britaia From
this we must deduct sixteen required for the reparation of the fleet
after being damaged by the equinoctial tides, and to which Caesar had
to return from Chartham Downs after fighting his first battle with the
Britons. Thus Caesar had only sixteen days left tor his incursion,
conquest, and return ; hence it becomes almost a physical impossi-
bility for Caesar to have marched so far as Coway Stakes, through, to
him, an entirely unknown, wild, inhospitable, and bitterly opposed
country, where every minute and hour of the day he had to
encounter the vexatious and irritating skirmishing of the 4,000
Essedarii* (who never remained long enough to be beaten), that
Caswallon had purposely retained to harass his foes. Besides, he not
only had to remove day by day the matkrUl of his invading forces,
but also to construct a camp^f which, although only an earthwork,
yet was necessary to be done by his wearied legions during day-light,
otherwise they would have been subjected to ai night attack similar to
that Q. Laberius Durus} met his death endeavouring to repel.
I also think it most probable that the state of the Trinobantes was
in the hundred of Hoo, because how otherwise could it have been
possible for Caesar during his advance into the country to have
received ambassadors, who had then to return and collect forty
hostages, and procure from perchance north, east, west, and south,
sufficient corn for the sustenance of the Roman troops, if it had been
situate at a greater distance, and across a mighty river like the
Thames? Now it is quite clear that the extremely brief stay of
Caesar utterly precluded him from delaying his march to wait for
supplies. The road by which the supplies even reached Caesar is
still in existence near Higham.
Yours, etc A. J. Dunkin.
On the Site of the Ancient Ictis.
[1829, Part IL^ pp. 207-208.]
The situation of that isiet, called by the ancients Ictis, whence the
Cornish Britons brought their tin at low water, to be shipped by the
Phcenician merchants, has occasioned much controversy among
antiquaries. One supposes it to be St Michael's Mount ; another the
Black-rock in Falmouth harbour ; a third, St Nicholas, vulgo Drake's
* Li!>. ▼., c. xix.
t Sed eos fugientes longiiis Csesar persec^ui vetuit, et qu6d loci naturam ignorabat,
et qu6d magnft parte diei consumptfi, monitioni castrorum tempus relinqui volebat
Lib. v., c. viii.
X Q. Laberius Durus was buried at Chartham Downs. Mr. Fagg in the
eighteenth century opened the barrow, and was rewarded by finding many relics,
(^uglas, '* Nenia Brit.") £o die Q. Laberius Durus tribunus militum iuterficiiur :
illi, pluribus immissis cohortibus, repelluntur.
156 Miscellaneous Antiquities: British Period.
island in Plymouth Sound ; a fourth conjures the Isle of Wight into
the identical spot ; while others with greater probability consider it to
have been destroyed by the encroachments of the sea.
We are told by Diodorus Siculus, that according to the tide it was
either an island or a peninsula. At first sight there certainly does
appear a remarkable coincidence betwixt this description and St.
Michael's Mount ; but when we call to mind the manifold changes
that have, and continually do take place on the sea coast, as well
as the testimony of tradition, we shall soon learn it never could have
been the Ictis of that writer.
Mount's Bay, it is said, was originally land covered with wood
Some years since, several trees were found buried in the sand near
the Mount,* a proof of the veracity of this tradition, which further
tells us this land ran a considerable way into the sea, and was called
the **Land of Leonesse," — a name supposed to be of Phoenician
origin. Risdon also, in the first paragraph of his Survey of Devon,
says: **That region which geographers account the first of all
Britain, and shooteth out furthest mto the west, was once reputed the
fourth part of this island, and supposed to be a kingdom before the
sea swallowed up the land between St, Burian and the islands of Scillyy
included under tbe name of Damnonia, is of later times divided into
two parts, known by the names of Devonshire and Cornwall." In
the charter granted to the monastery by St Edward the Confessor,
the Mount is termed "St. Michael's in the wood near the sea ;" its
name likewise in the Cornish tongue was Karreg Lut en Kuz^ />.,
The hoary rock in the wood.
This land of Leonesse was overwhelmed t at a remote period by
some great convulsion of nature, either by an inundation or an
earthquake, p>erhaps by the agency of both. Sir Christopher
Hawkins, in his " Observations on the Tin trade of the Ancients in
Cornwall," affects to despise this account, because the precise date
when it occurred cannot be ascertained, " for we cannot give credit
to so extraordinary and supernatural an event, on the mere assertion
of a monkish writer, or from a circumstance of so trifling a nature as
* This same phenomenon has been observed on difTerent parts of the coast. In
Whitsand Bay, the eastern boundary of which is the Ram Head, where Polwhele
places his Grecian factory, an old inhabitant told roe that on a clear day, when the
tide was very low, a forest might be seen under water, the branches of the trees
towards land, and their roots to the sea, as if thrown in that position by the
inrushing of the waters. While the fleet were lying in Torbay during the late
war, a tree of large dimensions was drawn up by the anchor of one of the ships.
t Tradition tells us at the time of its occurrence one of the Trevelyan family
(now seated in Somersetshire), with much difficulty escaped on horsetiack (Drew's
"Hist, of Cornwall," p. 15). Fishermen have seen the ruins of houses (so says
Carew) between the mainland and the Scilly Isles, and while fishing have drawn
up pieces of doors and windows. — The Saxon Chronicle mentions a destructive
inundation which desolated the southern coasts of England in the eleventh century :
might not this have been the one that destroyed the land of Leonesse ?
On the Site of the Ancient let is. 157
above described," viz., the discovery of the trees. But why should
we disbelieve a monk more than Caradoc the Welsh historian, who
informs us that Cardigan bay was formed by the inroads of the sea
early in the seventh century? Is there any thing more extraordinary
or supernatural in an island being destroyed on the Cornish coasts by
an earthquake than that one should arise out of the ocean among the
Azores, from the same cause ? Had it indeed been the legend of
St Michael's wonderful appearance* on the mount, he might have
doubted ; as such idle stories, it is well known, were invented by the
different monasteries to impose on the credulous, and by that means
increase their riches. But no advantage could accrue to the monks
from the forgery of this story of the inundation. For my own part,
I regard the monkish historians as much more worthy of respect
than they are generally allowed to be ; nor do I doubt them, except
where the aggrandizement of their particular house seems to be the
sole reason (and that is easily discovered) for their statements.
Presuming, therefore, that St. Michael's Mount cannot be the long
sought Ictis, I shall now proceed to examine the claims of the other
competitors. [See/w/, p. 166.]
Those who favour the Black-rock do so because the river Fal is in
the centre of the mining district ; but, reply their opponents, it is at
a distance from any other rock, and scarcely above water at low tide.
Both these arguments are fallacious, for it clearly appears from
Diodorus that Ictis was near the promontory of Boleriumf (land's
End). Even had we not his authority, I should not be inclined
to reject its claim for the latter reason, because the encroachment of
the sea might have reduced it to what it is, and left the bare rock, as
it were, a monument of its triumph.
The pretensions of Drake's Island are equally objectionable, and
those who defend them cannot be acquainted with the Tamer ; for, if
the Britons worked the mines on the banks of that river, it is not
likely they would take the trouble to bring the produce in carts
round its different creeks and branches to this spot, when it could be
brought hither with less fatigue in boats.
The Isle of Wight has no one argument in its favour ; in the first
place, it is too far from the main land. Its size is also against it, for
* This was in the year 495 ; but the French contend that it was on Mount
St Michael in Normandy.
f " Those Britons who dwell near the promontory of Bolerium, live in a very
hospitable, polite manner, which is owing to their great intercourse with foreign
merchants. They prepare, with much dexterity, the tin which the country pro-
duceth When it is refined, they cast it into ingots, in the shape of cubes or
dies, and then carry it into an adjacent island, which is called Ictis ; for when it is
low water, the space between that bland and the continent of Britain becomes dry
land, and they carry ereat quantities of tin into it in carts. Here the merchants
buy it, and transport it to the coast of Gaul ; from whence they convey it overland,
on horses, in about thirty days, to the mouths of the Rhone." — Quoted by Sir C.
Hawkins, p. 5a
158 Miscellaneous Antiquities: British Period.
we are led to believe that Ictis was only a small islet where the tin
was brought for the conveniency of being shipped Lastly, but not
the least, is its great distance from even the most eastern parts of the
territories of the Damnonii ; and it is very improbable they would
take this their valuable metal so far through the dominions of
a hostile nation to this island, though it might then join the con-
tinent of Britain, when they themselves were divided into three
tribes continually at variance with each other. Besides, we have no
proof that the Phoenicians ever traded so far east as the Tamer,
much less there ; although a gold coin of that nation was found some
years back in Torbay, and Start point is supposed to owe its name to
their goddess Astarte.
The only reasonable conclusion to be drawn is, that Ictis was
somewhere near the Land's End (because the oldest mines are in that
neighbourhood), but destroyed by some violent commotion of
nature, as the Atlantis of Pliny was.
Yours, etc J. C
Description of a Barrow lately opened at Oddington.
[1787, Part I., pp. 292, 293.]
In the latter end of February, in enclosing the' parish of Oddington,
near Stow-in-the- Would, County Gloucester (for which an Act of
Parliament was lately obtained), a small barrow, which appeared an
obstruction to the plough, was levelled. When cut perpendicularly,
it had the appearance of a stone quarry, with which the country
abounds, being formed of layers of large flat stones thinly interspersed
with earth. At a small depth from the surface, and about the level
of the field, were found many human bones, lying in regular order
of interment From the negligent manner of opening the barrow, it
could not be ascertained what number of bodies they composed —
some say six, others ten ; some of the bones, of a smaller size than
the rest, were supposed to have belonged to a female. A quantity of
ashes were found in the bottom of this repository, with several remains
of personal ornaments and habiliments of war. Many articles were
carried away by the labourers ; but of some of the principal which
have fallen into my hands I send you a drawing, in hopes that, as
your useful publication is perused by most antiquaries, some light
may be acquired as to the era in which these persons lived, of whom
no tradition at present remains in the neighbourhood.
Plate II.) fig. I, is a circular plate of iron, with a small handle,
three inches and a quarter in diameter and one-eighth of an inch in
thickness, of which there were several.
Fig. 2 resembles an ear-pick, with a hole at one end for its
appendage. The drawing is of the size of the original, and of copper.
Fig. 3. A bodkin, likewise copper, and of the size of the original
Barrow lately opened at Oddington. 159
Several of these were found of various lengths, and were probably
female appurtenances.
Fig. 4. A spear, six inches and a half in the blade, and one inch
and a quarter in the broadest part
Fig. 5. A spear of different shape, eight inches and a half in the
blade, the point broken off, which must have been an inch more, one
inch and an eighth broad at the shoulder, the shafts of both gone,
but part of the iron socket of each remaining.
Fig. 6. Beads— one of free-stone, one of blue glass, the irregular
shaped ones amber and of unequal size, all perforated. There were
others of green and red glass. As many as would fill a quart pot
were found, which are in various hands.
Fig. 7. The centre of a round shield, five inches and three-
quarters diameter at the base, depth within two inches and a half.
What is remarkable in this is, that the rivets whith connected the
next circle are plated or cased with silver, which with the point of a
penknife may be raised from the iron.
Fig. 8 is of copper, and might well pass for an old button with a hole
in the middle, but that on its reverse are two shanks, like those of
fig. 9, to affix it to the body or vestments. Time or violence has
rent the circular holes in the shanks made for the affixing both this
and fig. 9. This article may be a Roman fibula, or something of a
bracelet of more modem times.
Fig. 9 is an ornament of the same class. It is of brass, two of
which were found exactly similar, in great preservation, and so well
gilt that most of the gilding still remains. The edge of it rises like
that of a saucer near a quarter of an inch. The drawing is the size
of the original, and I have been precisely accurate in the copy, wishing
it may not be merely the fancy of the workman, but that it may con-
tain characters tending to develop to what people it belonged.
Two of the compartments seem alike, the third appears to vary a
Uttle.
Speed and other ancient historians tell us, that the spear and shield
were used by the ancient Britons, and that they were fond of glass
and amber beads, and that they did not use casques or helmets. The
head, however, in fig. 9, has somewhat the appearance of being enclosed
in one.
The Romans had numerous stations in this county, as the names
of many places evince. The Saxons, too, in turn, have left many
traces of their abode in this neighbourhood. Addlestrop, or .£dle
Thorp, an adjacent village, is of Saxon denomination. Stow, or St.
Edward's Stow, or Place, as it is called in records, is likewise Saxon.
It seems to have been much distinguished by that Saint, who was
termed the glorious St. Edward and was brother to Edmond the
Martyr, the Saxon King. Maugersbury, or Malgaresberie, as it is
named in Domesday Book (which for more than two centuries has
i6o Miscellaneotts Antiquities: British Period.
been the seat of the ancient family of the Chamberlaynes), was proba-
bly, from its adjunct of Bury, a Saxon villa. The habitation of St
Edward is likely to have been thereabouts, as there is a well there
called St Edward's Well, the water of which is reported to have virtue
in diseases of the eyes^ and other remembrances of him remain. The
church of Stow was built about 800 years since by Ailmere, Earl of
Cornwall and Devon, on a ground then called St Edward's Close.
These bodies were probably buried before the erection of that church,
being so near to it Maugersbury is still nearer to the barrow. It
might be the place of interment of the residents of that villa — ^the
mixture of sexes seems to denote its being a place of regular burial ;
but if they were the victims of war, from the cruelties of which, we
know, women in ancient times were not exempt, they were possibly
hastily deposited here at a later period ; all which conjectures I sub-
mit to the opinions of your more learned readers, much wishing for
their communications on the subject
Yours, etc. D. L. M.
Antiquities in Dorsetshire.
[1768,/^. X09.113.]
I desire you to insert the following account of some curiosities in
the county of Dorset in your next Magazine. By this canal I humbly
offer it to the public, and request the opinion and judgment of the
learned concermng it
I am, your constant Reader, J. EL
In the parish of Alspiddle, about three miles north-east from
Piddletown, in Dorsetshire, on a little hill or ridge called Bladen,
Blagden, or Blackdown, where the road goes from Piddletown to
Pool, opposite to Alspiddle on the north, and to Hurst and Palling-
ton on the south, are a vast number of pitts. Their diameters,
depth, and distance from each other are different, and run from east
to west On the east there are some very large and deep ones ; but
they lessen towards the west The second on the east, over which
the strongest man cannot throw a stone, is computed to be 60 toises
in diameter, and is called Hurl-peppers, or Culpeppers Dish. Some-
times there are two, contiguous to each other, only divided by a thin
partition like the diameter line of a circle. At the east end they lye
only on one side of the road, but as you advance farther west they
lye on both sides, in a double range. They are all of a circular or
conical form, broad at top, but grow narrower at the bottom. It is
observed that they never hold water in the wettest seasons. There
are no heaps of earth near them that might have been taken out of
them, only some tumuli, whose bigness and number are inconsider-
able. They are 112 in number. Near them, in Piddletown Heath,
are many more of the like kind
Antiquities in Dorsetshire. 161
Various have been the conjectures concerning them, Some, who
suppose them to be artificial, imagine them to be Druidical, and in-
tended for places of sacrifice, before temples were built, where the
fires might be sheltered from disturbing winds. Others will have
them used for the burning of dead bodies, as was the custom of the
Gauls, who received their religious, if not their civil rites too, from
the Britains. (Caesar de BelL Gallic, L 6.) And as pitts of this kind
are frequently found in heathy countries, a question has been started
whether the Druids might not have such a kind of esteem for heath
AS they had for oak, mistletoe, and vervain, etc. Some have thought
them to be traps or snares for wild beasts, as was practised by the
Gauls. This was the opinion of the late Dr. Ward, of Gresham
College, who was consulted concerning them. Others have appre-
hended them to have been designed for a military use, either by way
of defence or surprise. Some think they might be dug for marie
pitts, and this will account for there being no heaps of earth near
them. The use of marie was known in the time of the Romans,
and no doubt before. Many old hollows still remain, which the
country people by tradition say were dug for marie. Old deeds
mention marlaria, or marie pitts. Others have thought them to
have been repositories to hide com, etc, in time of war ; but the
great breadth of some of them would have made it very difficult, if
not impossible, to cover them and conceal their contents. Besides,
these pitts in the heath near Crayford and Feversham, in Kent, men-
tioned by Mr. Camden as designed for this use, are narrow at the
top, though large at bottom. Pliny and Tacitus mention pitts made
for this purpose.
Some suppose them to be natural, and their opinion is favoured
by the nature of the soil, which is a loose, porous black sand, under
which is a deep stratum of yellow gravel, usual in this heathy country,
so that they might be forined by the sinking in and mouldering of
the soil ; and in the plain below there are several small ones that
have been sunk in the memory of man, near which, at the foot of the
hill, there are several strong springs, one of which, on the south of
Oker's Wood, after running a little way, goes into a pit, and is lost
Leland describes some of a similar nature : '' There be a great
number of pits made by hand, large like a bowle at the headde, and
narrow in the bottom, overgrown in the Swart with fine grass ; and
be scattered here and there, about the quarters where the headde of
Kennet river is, that cumythe by Caire Kennen [near Carmarthen in
Wales], and sume of these will receive an hunderithe men, sume 2
hunderithe. They be in the blake mountains." Leland, *'Itin."
voL viiLy p. 92. Dr. Stukeley mentions such in Wiltshire. At Ad-
dington, near Croydon in Surrey, are a great number of pits of the
same form, and in the same soil as ours.
Mr. Aubrey, in his '* Monumenta Britannica," a valuable work yet
VOL. VI. 11
i62 Miscellaneous Antiquities: British Period.
unpublished [see Note 21], mentions some at Todpit» or Tippit» in the
parish of Martin, in Wilts. Tod, in old Englbh is, he says, marie, or
manure, and is still so called in Yorkshire. Between that and the
parish of Chalk, on the Downs, are many pits, where, on boring the
earth, good white marie is found These were probably dug by the
Romans for agriculture. At Tidderlees, in Kent, four miles from Capel,
are an hundred acres full of pits on an hill. Tradition says it was an
encampment. At Pen Hill, near Stourton, in Wiltshire, the ground for
a mile in length, and half a mile in breadth, is full of pits, close by
one another, some — feet in diameter, and 16 deep. Here Kenwal^
King of the West Saxons, defeated the Britons, and Edmund, King
of the West Saxons, fought the Danes under Canute.
In the cliflfs near the south-east end of the Isle of Purbeck, from
Encomb to Osmington, and even on the north side of the Isle of
Portland, but chiefly in the parish of Great Kimerage, is found a
sort of coal or inflammable slate, of a very bituminous and sul-
phureous nature. It burns very strong and light, but emits a very
sulphureous smell, and blackens those that are about it extreamely,
but is not found unwholesome or prejudicial to the eyes. In burn-
ing, it is not reduced wholly to ashes, but to slate. It is found in
great lumps, 16 feet below the tops of the rocks, in stony cliffs only,
but its stratum is not above 2 feet deep, nor does the vein extend far
from the sea-shore. It is almost only used by the poor in their
chimneys and ovens, and sold for 9d. an hogshead, or 6d. a tun.
In the cliff, and where it happens to be under water, it is very hard \
but when exposed to the air, shivers into pieces like slate. Of this
coal is made the coal-money hereafter mentioned.
Dr. Milles, Dean of Exeter, in his remarks on a like kind of coal
found at South Bovey, in Devonshire, thirteen miles south-east from
Exeter, and ten from the sea, in a common called Bovey Hethfield,
in the '* Philosophical Transactions," vol li., part il, p. 534, No. 53,
2760, and No. 65, p. 941, 1761, observes that it is not a fossil wood,
or once a vegetable substance, as the Germans imagine; that the
smoke resembles that of asphaltum, or the bitumen of the Dead Sea.
The ancients and moderns speak of it as a mineral substance, or
metallophyton. He shews the analogy between Bovey coal and
fossil wood in Germany, described by Professor Holman, and that
this fossil is not of a vegetable, but of a mineral origin or production,
and proves his opinion by arguments, authorities, experiments, and a
chemical analysis of the subject He says the KJmeridge coal, of
which I sent him some pieces, is very much like, but not so large as
the Bovey coal. They are both of that kind of fossil called by the
naturalists lignum fossile, and is only an earth impregnated with
bitumen, which in most places runs into a laminal form, and the coal
rises — at least, the upper vein of it — within a foot of the surface of
Antiquities in Dorsetshire. 163
the ground. The Kimeridge coal, by the yellow strokes or spots that
appear on it, seems to be raarcas'ite.
Dr. Pocock, late Bishop of Meath, in his " Travels to the East,"
vol. ii., pp, 30, 37, says that beyond Bethany, in the way to Jericho,
and about two or three leagues from the Dead Sea, is found a stone
called Hajar Mouse, or the Stone of Moses, which burns like a coal,
does not consume, and turns only to a white stone, and not to ashes,
and has the same disagreeable smell as the bitumen of the Dead Sea,
and thinks that it is probable that a stratum of this stone under that
sea is one part of the matter that feeds the subterranean fires, and
that the bitumen boils up out of it.
In the Isle of Portland, in the north-west corner near the castle,
is a stratum of coal like that at Kimeridge. it is found on the out-
side of the cliffs, and dug horizontally. The upper stratum is 14
feet of natural black earth ; the next is a greyish soft stone, 6 inches
deep; then follow the vein of coal about 10 inches thick; under this
is a black earth, and at the bottom of the cliff, clay. It rises in
lamina. There are two sorts, black and reddish ; the last is the
worst, and does not burn so well. The ashes of both is a good
manure for clay ground ; it is mostly used to heat ovens with, piled
up as turf. It gives a clear light, and yields a strong bituminous smell,
and is in all respects like the Kimeridge coal. It is found more
to the west, in the sands on the open shore at Chickerel and Fleet
At Smedmore, in the parish of Great Kimeridge, near the seat of
Geo. Clavel, Esq., is found a remarkable curiosity, called coal-money,
made of Kimeridge coal. It is generally discovered in the top oif
the cliffs, 2 or 3 feet below the surface, enclosed between two stones
set edgeways, and covered with a third ; this enclosure contains a
quantity of them, mingled with a few bones of some animal. Some-
times many are found in the grounds adjoining, near the surface, and
it is observable that where they lye is made ground ; they are un-
doubtedly artificial. They are of a round form, from i to 2, or 3
inches diameter, and a \ inch thick. One side is flat, the other
convex, on which are several mouldings. On the flat side are two,
sometimes four round holes near the rim, but they do not penetrate
through the piece (perhaps the centre-holes in which they were fixed
in the turning-press). Antiquaries do not doubt but that they are
British antiquities, but whether amulets or money is not agreed. It
is not probable they were amulets, for those exhibited by Mr. Camden,
p. 695, ed. I, and by Dr. Stukeley in his " Stone-henge," p. 44, table
33, entirely differ from these both in form and materials. The former
are chiefly globular or cubical, with an hole pierced through them ;
the latter were glass, earth, and amber. They are known to the
country people only by the name of coal-money. It is observable
that "cole" is a cant word; and it is a common expression in this
and some other counties, " Down with your cole !" i>., " Pay your
II — 2
J 64 Miscellaneous Anttquilies: British Period.
iponey P' Some have been found in the cliffs at Flowers Barrow, an
ancient camp near East Lullworth. Not long since there was found
on the sea-shore near Kimeridge a bowl made of this coal, 6 inches
in diameter, but shallow, and of equal height ; it contained a few
pieces of this money.
Some curious observers in Worcestershire, Lancashire, and in
other counties where there are coal-mines, are requested to inform
us whether anything of this nature is found amongst the pit-coal,
kennel-coal, etc
[1839, ^off/.,/. 196.]
Some workmen engaged in lowering of the hill in Fordington,
adjoining Dorchester, have lately brought to light some curious
remains of antiquity. All about the locality in question, numerous
human skeletons have at various times been found, leading to divers
conjectures and hypotheses. Many such were now discovered, lying
in various positions ; but the most interesting portion of the pro-
ceedings was the exhumation of a skeleton that had evidently been
interred beneath a barrow. Round the neck of the skeleton, which
was that of a female, was a necklace of beads of glass and amber,
connected by very fine brass links, and to which was appended an
amulet, about an inch and a half in diameter, and nearly spherical,
and beautifully turned out of the Kimmeridge coal ; and on the right
arm was an armlet of the same material, elegantly turned, ornamented,
and highly polished The body had been interred with the head to
the north, and near the head was an urn of rude black ware, slightly
ornamented on the exterior, and about seven inches high, and about
the same in diameter at the mouth, with another smaller urn or
drinking cup, of somewhat ruder shape and manufacture, and the
remains of a lachrymatory of the red Samian ware, of elegant form
and proportion. The interment is clearly that of a Romanized Briton.
Notes on the Remains of Early British Tin- Works.*
[1S63, Part IL, pp. 696-699.]
The present notes by no means adequately represent the subjects
which I desired to lay before the meeting ; they are but a slight out-
shadowing of them, and I place them in your bands (Dr. Barham's)
simply to call attention to a few points which appear to me to require
closer investigation than they have yet received. I shall leave with
you the question of the intercourse of the Phoenicians, merely ex-
pressing my opinion that a great mistake has been made in supposing
the Scilly Islands to have been the Cassiterides. There does not
exist in the islands any indication of ancient tin workings. I cannot
learn that any tin has ever been found in any of the Scilly Islands,
* A paper by Robert Hunt, Esq., F.RS., Keeper of BCiBing Records, read by
Dr. Bartuun at the Cambrian Archaeological Meetings at ThuOb Aog. 29^ 1862.
Remains of Early British Tin-Works, 165
but I know that small veins of schorl have been mistaken for tin.
The appearance, however, of Cornwall from the sea is such that it
might easily have been taken for a group of islands, and when we
have the evidence of the Hereford map to show how imperfect
geographical information was at a much later date, when even the
Principality of Wales was supposed to be a separate island, we can
without much difficulty admit that the term was applied generally to
Cornwall The evidences of very ancient tin workings are still to be
found in many parts of this county and of Devonshire. In St Just,
near Cape Cornwall, are some rude workings upon the run of the
lodes, and there are still remaining evidences in other parts of that
parish, and in the adjoining parishes, which are probably early British.
Some of the most remarkable workings in the county are, however, to
be found in Gwennap, .and in Baldhu. Again, in St. Agnes and in
Perranzabuloe there are excavations showing that remarkable want of
engineering knowledge which distinguishes all early workings.
Around St Austell we find similar evidences, and again in the
neighbourhood of Calstock. Especially at Drakewall like excava-
tions — open today — exist. On Dartmoor these are numerous, and
the extensive workings at and near Birch Tor are probably the most
extraordinary existing.
Many of the old mine workings belong, without doubt, to the
Roman period ; and there is evidence that the educated skill of the
Romans was brought to bear upon the Cornish tin mines. Many
years since, when examining the workings of the lode in Baldhu, I
heard of a well-executed adit having been discovered which had been
driven up to the lode ; and Mr. Enys informs me that he has learnt,
on good authority, that " there was a large arched stone level in the
elvan that runs through the district, very different from any other of
the 'old men's workings,' but that it was almost impossible to get
near it at present without extreme danger.'' This description agreed
with that of the Roman works in Spain.
Again, numerous ''old men's workings" must belong to the reign
of King John, when mining for tin was carried on most actively. I
have but little doubt that nearly all the perforations in the cliffs of
the tin district — such as are seen in a most remarkable manner in the
granite at Clegga Head and scattered along the cliffs in St. Agnes
and Perranzabuloe — belong to this period. That very extensive
mining operations were carried on at that time on Dartmoor is
certain ; and evidences of the existence of a large population still
remain. The singularly isolated churches on the moor are all
supp>osed to be of this date.
We have, therefore, in dealing with this question, to separate with
care the Roman workings, and the so-called "Jews' workings," from
the true early British excavations. The evidences of sheltering
earth-works appear to me to be exceedingly strong in favour of the
1 66 Miscellaneous Antiquities : British Period.
existence of the most ancient of British mines. One of the most
remarkable of those is the Bolster, in St. Agnes, which may be
traced from Poltreen to Chapel Forth ; and there are many in-
dications of its having been continued in the other direction to
Trevan nance, thus enclosing the whole of St Agnes Beacon, upon
and around which tin has been and is abundant Similar enclosures
are to be yet traced in St Just and many other places, and either
within or very near these we may generally find that every lode has
been worked — by simply clearing it out as far as the primitive miner
could follow it — by following every string, however small in size it
may have been, and indeed by employing the rudest methods of the
untaught mind. Many of the rock castles, many of the '* rounds"
could have been constructed for no other purpose than to protect the
stores of tin which had been gathered in the neighbourhood of them.
I believe we may by a little cautious investigation separate the ancient
British workings from those which were directed by the Romans, or
those which were carried out by the Jews at a later period. This
investigation I desire to open — it is full of interest
The general tendency of all Cornish antiquaries and historians has
been to make St Michael's Mount the Iktis of Diodorus, from the
circumstance that it agrees at the present time precisely with the de-
scription of the ancient historian. [See ante^ iS^-'S?*] Diodixus speaks
not of an island, but of islands, and to them the Britons conveyed their
tin. Secrecy as to the localities from which this then precious metal
was obtained was to be preserved. The Tyrian traders were kept on
the coast ; they do not appear to have been admitted to the mainland.
This circumstance explains the construction of such works as the
Bolster, the hill castles, the rounds, or at least of some of them, and
many other arrangements for secrecy and safety. The means for
conveying the heavy ore being necessarily limited, there can be but
little doubt that the nearest secure place of shipment would be
selected, and perhaps in every case the traders were confined to the
islands near the coast It is not improbable that tin may have been
carried to the Sciliy Islands, seeing that there has been a shadowy
tradition pointing to them as the Cassiterides. But St. Michael's
Mount still preserves the character given to the Iktis by Diodorus,
and it was no doubt one of the islands named by the historian, and
to it in all probability was taken for sale and shipment all the tin ob-
tained in the western district Seeking for the other islands, two
especially present themselves. These are St Nicholas Island in
Plymouth Sound, and St George's or Looe Island. At the present
time th^se islands are constantly surrounded by water, but an ex-
amination of the Admiralty charts will show that over thp "bridge"
which connects St Nicholas Island with Mount Edgcumbe there is,
even in the centre opening, at low water only a few feet (I believe
only three) of water, whije all the other parts are left dry. The rocks
Remains of Early British Tin-Works. 167
which run out from Hannafore Point, by the Midmain Point, in like
manner connect Looe Island with the main, there being but a few
feet of water above them at low tides.
We have evidence of the submarine forest in Millendreth Bay,
near Looe; of the raised beach at Reddling Point, under Mount
Edgcumbe; of the submarine forest in the Mount's Bay, and
numerous raised beaches around the coast, to support the hypothesis
of a change in the relative level of land and water. This is not,
however, required to support the view that at one time the two
islands named were left with a passage dry from them to th^ shore.
The disintegrating action of waves beating on either side of such a
neck as that which we suppose to have existed, and the abrasive
power of tidal currents, would be quite sufficient to produce the
separation, without any raising or lowering of the land. But for the
protecting influence of the mass of greenstone running out from
Marazion, called the Hogus, and that which is afforded also, to some
extent, by the elvan dyke forming the Long Rock, especially the
other portion called the Rayman, and the interpenetration of the clay
slate around the island by granite and quartz veins, there is no doubt
but St Michael's Mount would long since have been in the position
of St Nicholas and Looe Islands. The proposition which I en-
deavour to support is — that St Michael's Mount, St George's or
Looe Island, and St Nicholas Island, were three of the islands in-
cluded under the description given by Diodorus (I think there are
others, especially on the north coast of Cornwall, which might be in-
cluded), and that the tin produced by the ancient Cornish people
over the western district found its way to St Michael's Mount ; that
the extensive district around St Austell sought for a shipping port at
Looe Island ; and that the tin obtained from the Calstock and
Callington districts, and that collected from the wide range of
Dartmoor, was taken to St Nicholas Island, in Plymouth Sound.
Sir George Comewall Lewis has recently been endeavouring to
revive the claims of the Isle of Wight How that lovely spot ever
came to be regarded as the probable Iktis is strange, seeing it does not
agree with any one of the conditions required Certainly, we have
one island which yet preserves all the characters required, and at least
two others which may have been in the condition of islands when the
tide was flowing, but having passages to the mainland at low water;
and these will be found, I believe, to he the islands of the ancient
historian. [See Note 22.]
Early Anglo-Saxon Remains.
EARLY ANGLO-SAXON REMAINS.
Saxon Antiquities at Kempston, Beds.
[1864, Fartl.,fp. 23% ai4-]
Sir, — I am confident that you will be glad to record in the
GeniUmatfs Magastm authentic evidence of this Saxon settlement in
the south -ID id land district of England For several years past frag-
ments of rettery, spear-heads, and bronze fibulse have occasionally
been founJ in the parisli of Kempston, about a mile and a half ftotn
Bedford, and the opinion prevailed that this was the site of one of
the numerous battles alleged to have been fought in this valley. I
was much occupied on this spot a few years ago in making geological
investigations of the fine strata here presented of post-tertiary gravel ;
and as my attention was sometimes called by the gravel-diggers to
the human bones disturbed by them, t was tempted occasionally to
discontinue my own inquiry and follow out their excavations in the
vicinity of the Saxon graves. I soon arrived at a different opinion
to that entertained generally, and obtained many proofs that this
was no hasty interment of warriors slain in mortal strife, but a gradual
garnering of the victims of the great leveller of all — that, in fact,
" Up End " is a Saxon cemetery. The orderly disposition of the
bodies, and the proportion of females and children, imply that the
settlement of that people was of long standing ; and that they were
Saxon is proved by the weil-known forms of accompanying urns,
weapons, and personal ornaments. The gravel strata in the field so
long under excavation for road material having been exhausted last
year, the owner of the property has appropriated another field, divided
from the first only by the public road ; and at this site the human
remains are more plentiful, and the accompanying objects of art
much richer. \ large proportion of the bodies found previously
were accompanied by very few articles, and most of the urns were
small, of ordinary forms, and without ornamentation. There was
one grave, however, which proved an exception. It contained the
172 Early Anglo-Saxon Remains.
skeleton of a stalwart man, and I remember to have noticed the
skull, before it was again buried, as differing from the common type
found here, being broader at the base and more developed over the
brows. By the side of the head was a spear-blade, precisely like
some in the Faussett collection derived from a Saxon grave at
Kingston : by the side of the skeleton were two knives, also like the
Kentish types of that collection ; the umbo of a shield, in form like
one found at Gilton ; a bronze fibula set with garnets ; and an urn,
which the late Mr. Kemble pronounced unique in England, as it had
a piece of glass inserted in the bottom. No further description is
here necessary, as I furnished an account of this relic to the *' Col-
lectanea Antiqua," vol. iv. 159. There has not been, until lately, a
satisfactory supervision of these discoveries, as the local treasure-
trove right was not clearly understood, and the articles got into
the hands of various collectors. I am glad to add, however, that
there is now a proper understanding ; and the owner of the land, Mr.
Littledale, is devoting himself to the conservation of the relics, and
our Archaeological Society has prevailed on the Rev. S. £. Fitch,
who resides in the parish, to take full notes of the various discoveries.
This he is doing with great care and zeal ; and as the notes will
probably be published by the society, I will now only state, for the
interest of the readers of your pages, some general features of this
Saxon cemetery. The site is the highest portion of the land between
Kempston and Bedford (the Bedicanford of the Saxons), and was
probably selected on that account as well as for having a deep stratum
of gravel The principal portion of the bodies yet uncovered were
carefully laid in shallow graves seldom exceeding 3 feet in depth; but
there were two instances described by the men of the body being in
a sitting posture, and my attention was called to one which presented
such an appearance ; but as there had been a bcttlement of the soil
at that spot, I incline to the opinion that this exception to the
recumbent position was due to that cause rather than to any design
on the part of those who paid the last rites to the Saxon warrior.
This case was a very interesting one, from the mode in which it first
came to observation. After a heavy rain, which had thoroughly
saturated the soil, a large portion of the face of the pit fell down, and
the new section thus formed displayed the warrior in relief, with his
spear-head, knife, and an urn which fell to pieces in the attempt to
remove it Another exception to the general mode of interment
here to be noticed is a case of cremation. There were fragments of
human bones which had been burnt, a great quantity of charred wood,
and an urn containing remnants of bones of small animals, which had
also been burnt. Some of the bodies now found are within 2 feet of
the surface; and one which I had the opportunity of seeing im-
mediately after the earth had been removed, was not more than iS
inches deep. This was the body of a female, and there was not the
Saxon Antiquities at Kemps ton^ Beds. 173
slightest disturbance of the bones ; even those of the hands and feet
were all in place. A bronze ring was on one finger. From the
sutures of the skull, and the small regular teeth, it may be inferred
that this was a young woman. In the grave of another female the
bones were also undisturbed, and with them were two bronze fibulse,
gilded, 114 beads, a large proportion of which are small lumps of
amber, but there are several of purple glass, a few of crystal, and one
of burnt clay of a dark colour, with red ornamentation ; there were
also three picks or bodkiiis of bronze on a ring. In other graves
similar relics were found ; and with the skeleton of a man, beside a
pair of fibulae, was the iron umbo of a shield, fragments of the bronze
rim to the shield, and a plate of metal, silvered, of the form of a fish,
with three rivets through it, supposed by some antiquaries to have
been a device fastened on the front of the shield. In one child's
grave, by the side of the body, was a little urn only 3 inches high,
destitute of any punctured ornamentation, but having three little
tufts, or projections, at the swell below the neck of the vessel.
Amongst other relics found was a fine greenish-coloured drinking-
giass, long and tapering, of the form of a deep ale-glass, but without
foot or stand, and having a spiral pattern embossed. This is with-
out crack or blemish, and is a very interesting specimen of the art of
the period. I will not now further trespass upon your pages but to
remark that the parish of Kempston has been a most fertile field for
the antiquary. During the period of my intimacy with the place I
have known the severs^ excavations to produce works of human art
representing the mediaeval period ; the Saxon, as above described ;
the Roman, by pottery and coins ; the British, by coins ; the stone
period, by celts and other weapons ; and last year I had the satisfac-
tion of proving the occupation of this locality by man at a still earlier
age by discovering a flint implement, of the Amiens type, in the
lowest gravel, which contains the fossil remains of the Elephas anti-
qtius and Hippopotamus major.
I am, etc. Jambs Wyatt, F.G.S.
Great Wilbraham, Cambridgeshire.
[1851, PartlL^p. 521.]
The Hon. R. C. Neville has for some weeks employed a number
of labourers in excavating a locality near Great Wilbraham, in
Cambridgeshire, long since known as the site of a Saxon Burial
Ground, Various interesting remains have been from time to time
discovered there, but it appears that they have hitherto rather served
to gratify the avidity of collectors than promote the ends of anti-
quarian research, which is Mr. Neville's aim in making a systematic
investigation^ and taking advantage of the opportunities it affords of
getting at facts. As the mounds which at one time covered the
174 Early Anglo-Saxon Remains.
graves have been long since levelled, trenches have been cut, in
order to ascertain the position of the tumulL We are informed that
the skulls of the skeletons which are found in most of the graves
are of two very decided characters, and of very distinct periods ; that
the older graves contain but few and rude beads and that the skulls in
these are of remarkable flatness, the orbits of the eyes being almost at
the top of the head, which is long and most deficient in size ; that, in
the other class of graves which furnish beads, swords, knives, spear-
heads, and fibulae in profusion, the skulls are high and well
developed in front This is the popular ethnological view of the
result of the discoveries. But we do not see why the absence of
frontal space in the skulls decides them to be anterior in date to the
others ; and we shall look for that rigid attention to authenticated
facts which is necessary belore theories can be maintained, and
which we make no doubt Mr. Neville has adopted the proper means
to secure. Upwards of a hundred urns of dark-coloured unbaked
earth are said to have been exhumed In some graves have been
found thin bronze dishes and a wooden bucket or pail, hooped and
ornamented with bronze, with a handle still attached. This is a
rather important discovery, which does not square with the opinions
of those who saw in a very similar object, found some time since
at Wilbraham, a Saxon crown or diadem.* In several graves umboes
of shields were found ; within one of these the handle yet remained,
grasped by the finger-bones of a human hand The skeletons of a
man and horse occupied one grave, with a sword placed between
them. [See Note 25.] In another, as many as four fibulas were found,
together with sixty-four beads of various materials. One of the swords
discovered is said to be of a very superior description ; the blade as
usual of iron, but the handle ornamented with bronze.
Carlisle.
[1822, Ar//.,/. 353.]
Some men employed in widening the turnpike road leading from
Carlisle to Penrith, in Hesketh Lane, came in contact with a barrow
and a quantity of large cobble stones, in cutting their way through
which they found a broad two-edged sword, bent together, two spears,
one larger than the other, an axe, bridle-bits, part of a pair of spurs,
a sharpening stone, the bone handle of a razor, and the back of a
comb, both neatly carved, the remains of a bone comb, a piece
of iron, resembling a sickle, probably the back of a saddle, an iron
basin or top of a helmet, with holes in its rim, burnt bones, etc It
is evident that the whole has been exposed to heat, and from appear-
ances, the fire-place must have been 10 or 12 feet in diameter, and
* A correspondent of the Times directs attention to the correction of this error
by Mr. Roach Smith, in his "Collectanea Antiqua," vol. ii., where this identical
vessel is engraved, and designated a pail.
Discovery of Saxon Graves at Winster. 175
sunk in the ground at least three The stones immediately covering
the ashes were large, and closely set together, those above, smaller,
compact, and regular. There are various speculations as to their
claim to antiquity : some consider them Saxon, others Danish, while
many assign them a much more modem date.
Discovery of Saxon Graves at Winster, Derbyshire.
[1856, Part IL, pp, 644-645.]
A discovery of considerable interest, throwing much light upon the
funeral rites of our Saxon ancestors previous to their conversion to
Christianity, was accidentally made during the past week in the
garden attached to the residence of Mr. Charles Carill Worsley, at
Winster, Derbyshire. While lowering a bank of earth for the purpose
of making some improvements in the pleasure-ground, the labourers
uncovered two graves at the depth of upwards of 4 feet from the
present surface, each containing a human skeleton, lying on its right
side, with the knees drawn up, and the head pointing towards the
north-east A careful examination of the place', and the objects there
discovered, affords evidence of the interments having been made in
the following manner : — A wood fire was in the first place lighted
upon the ground, in or around which some large stones were put, so
as to become calcined ; this being burnt out, the place it occupied
was cleared for the reception of the body, which was then deposited
in the position before mentioned, along with the implements and
weapons of the deceased The calcined stones were next piled care-
fully over the corpse, and, finely, earth was heaped up above the
whole, probably while the ground was still warm. The first skeleton
was accompanied by a small spear-head or knife of iron, much
corroded, and the lower stone of a hand-mill, anciently used in every
household for grinding com ; — the latter had passed the fire. With
the second interment was found the upper stone of the same mill,
very neatly wrought in sandstone, but. split to pieces by the great heat
to which it had been exposed Some pieces of a very coarse vessel
of plain earthenware were found near the head of this skeleton ; and
behind it lay a large spear-head of iron, 2 feet 10 inches long, a
curved instrument of the same metal, 5 inches, originally fixed in a
wooden handle, the bone ferule of which still remains, and a ring-like
bead or decoration, of light-coloured porcelain about i^ inches
in diameter. The whole of the articles exhumed from these graves
(which may be assigned to the Teutonic or iron period, including the
time from the end of the fifth to the eighth century, a.d.), by
the kind permission of Mr. C. Carill Worsley, have been deposited in
Mr. Bateman's museum of antiquities, at Lombardale House.
176 Early AngUhSaxan Remains.
Antiquarian Discovery at Ebrington, Gloucestershire.
[1862, /kr//.,>y. 198,199-]
About a month ago some pits were dug in a field close to this
house [the vicarage] for the purpose of obtaining stone, when, about
18 inches below the surface, the man who was digging came upon eight
skeletons, very tolerably, iif not quite, perfect l^e teeth were as
sound and as good as if the- men had died but the other day, but
from his account of the mysterious disappearance of the other bones,
which he had put in a large heap, I have no doubt that they crumbled
away after their exposure to the air, and left only the htUe relics of
bone which are still visible round the edges of the pit Along with
these skeletons were found two steel or iron caps, or, rather, the tops
of such, very much corroded by rust ; they are rather more than 6
inches in diameter at the bottom, and stand about 3 inches high ;
they have a lip all round them, like the edge of a plate, in which the
studs are still to be seen, to which leather or some other substance
must have been attached to hang down the sides and back of the
head. For a crest, the caps, which are circular, rise up in a short
spike surmounted by a sort of button, the whole rising about one
inch above the cap. There were also found some spear-heads, about
7} inches in length, and about i^ in the widest part. Besides these,
there was a ring of bronze or bell-metal, which I have in my posses-
sion ; the diameter of the outer circle is 1} inches, that of the inner
\ inch ; the weight is if ounces ; a pin of the same metal, evidently
belonging to a brooch, in length 3X inches; and a small silver
ornament about 3} inches long, and x inch wide at the broader end,
from which it gradually tapers to a point One side of this strip of
silver is marked with longitudinal lines at the top and botpm, and
two rows of small points up the centre, by way of ornament, I
suppose. From these bronze and silver ornaments I should be
inclined to consider the remains as those of some Danes who had
a camp in the immediate neighbourhood on Meon Hill ; and as in
this parish we have traces of an engagement, in the names of Battle
Bridge and Battle Meadow, both of which are about a mile from the
place where these remains have been found, it is very possible that
some fight took place here of which we have no record in history.
I am informed, on credible authority, that about thirty years ago as
many as forty skeletons were discovered in or near this same field,
at which time many pieces of old armour, coins, and a sort of gold
plate were turned up, but I cannot find what became of them.
I enclose drawings of the spear, ring, pin, and silver ornament, and
regret I am not artist enough to do justice to the cap : the articles
are all delineated of one-half their actual size.
I am, etc. W. £. Hadow.
Antiquarian Discovery at Ebrington. 177
[1862, Pari /., p, 246.]
Your correspondent W. £. Hadow, at p. 199, in describing an anti-
quarian discovery at Ebrington, alludes to two articles which he
describes as " steel or iron caps, or rather the tops of such, very much
corroded by rust," etc. Your correspondent has fallen into a
mistake which often occurs to persons not acquainted with Saxon
antiquities ; his caps, in fact, are the umbos of shields : and this
latter supposition is strongly supported by the spear-heads being
found at the same time. Again, the locality being near Chipping
Campden is strongly corroborative of their Saxon origin.
I am, etc, E. Pretty.
(Since the article was inserted we have been favoured by the Rev.
Mr. Hadow with a drawing of one of the so-called "caps." We
regret that it was not supplied in the first instance, as, though very
slight and rough, it shows that Mr. Pretty's view is the correct one.)
Skeletons found near Basingstoke.
[1831, Par//.,/. 351.]
Several skeletons have been discovered while making the new road
over Rook's Down, in the parish of Sherboume St John, near Basing-
stoke. That a battle had formerly been fought on this spot is by no
means improbable, as wiihin half a mile of the Down there is a
very extensive and very ancient camp, known by the familiar appella-
tion of Bury Bank, or Winklow's Barrow, though no tumulus exists
on which to found the latter description. The area is surrounded by
a single rampart and a ditch on the outside, p*artly filled up by the
labours of the agriculturists. The height of the rampart, reckoning
the slope, may be in some places 25 or more feet From its sim-
plicity, it may be inferred that this was a work of the ancient Britons.
A great battle was fought at Basing by King Etheldred and his brother
Alfred, against the Danes, in 871.
Isle of Wight.
[1856, Partll.t p, 642.]
Mr. Hillier has recently made further researches in the Saxon
cemeteries in the Isle of Wight Unfortunately the heavy rains
caused him tcr postpone the excavations when they were on the point
of being attended with success. The most interesting deposit in the
graves examined consisted of a glass vessel, two fibulae (one concave,
the other cruciform), and a set of small toilette implements. The
last had been hung to the girdle, of which the buckle alone remained.
The most curious and novel of these little objects is a bronze knife,
used probably for paring the nails, and such purposes. It is curved ;
but the edge is outermost, and not, as the shape would suggest, on
VOL. VI. I 2
178 Early Anglo-Saxon Remains.
the lower side. It need scarcely be observed that these interesting
renaains were with the skeleton of a female.
Anglo-Saxon Relics, Kent.
[i860, Par/ 7/.,/^. 533-535]
Some valuable Anglo-Saxon relics, recently found at Sarr Mill,
Thanet, having come under my notice, I induced the possessor to
exhibit them to the Council of the Kent Archaeological Society, at
their meeting held in Canterbury a short time since. Having the
sanction of the president to make an offer to their nominal owner,
subject of course to the right and permission to retain them, I was
in hopes they would have been preserved for the county in which
they were discovered : in this I fear I have been disappointed.
I venture to give you a description, trusting the same may not prove
uninteresting to your readers, and to antiquaries in general.
In August last, in chalk land at Sarr, about 6 feet below the surface,
some workmen, in excavating the soil for the erection of a steam-
engine, found the following relics : A fibula, a bulla, four gold coins
or medals, a large and symmetrical bronze bowl, a metal pin, bead
of amethystine quartz, necklace of beads of amber and of coloured
clays, iron weapons, metal clasp of large purse, and some pieces of
iron, the use of which I was at a loss to determine. These were
deposited in a grave where a skeleton was found lying with the head
north-west by south-east. The skull of the defunct was tolerably
entire : it was rather thick, with a low forehead, and posterior part
somewhat protuberant; but, with the exception of a few of the
vertebrae and some fragmentary bones, little else remained. The
teeth indicated that the deceased was of no very advanced age. A
second grave, near the first, was also found, but it contained nothing
but a few bones.
The fibula found in the first grave was very beautiful, and nearly
perfect It had lain on the lefl breast. The external rim consisted
of garnets or garnet-coloured glass, interlaced with gold chequer-work
in half diamond patterns. Within it was a deep border of gold work,
then an inner circle of garnets or of coloured glass, interlaced also
with the gold chequer : again, another circle of beaded gold ; and in
the centre of all a large boss of ivory or seahorse's tooth, divided
quarterly with the same sort of gold chequer. The centre of the
fibula consisted of a large carbuncle, surrounded by a thin border of
the same gold-threaded or chequer-work. Four other ivory studs,
forming a square, contained also carbuncles, and completed the
ornan)entation of the brooch. This relic was 2f inches in diameter,
being of the same size as the fibula found near Abingdon, figured in
" Pagan Saxondom,'' plate 3, and which it strikingly resembled in
almost all other particulars.
The bulla was of gold, with ornament of mosaic or chequer-work
Anglo-Saxon Relics, Kent, 179
of red, blue, and white stones, and very similar to one described
plate 4, fig. 7, in " Inventorium Sepulchrale/' It had a loop for
suspension.
The bronze bowl was entire, except that it had been neatly re-
paired at the bottom by a patch of metal, affixed by small studs.
There was also one small hole in it. The metal was quite sound,
and scarcely appeared to have suffered at all by its long inhumation.
This bowl is of a shape not often found in the graves of Kent Mr.
Akerman has given an example of one (see " Pagan Saxondom ")
which was discovered by the late Ix>rd Londesborough, in 1843, at
Wingham, in this county, and which it exactly resembles, even to
the pattern of the open lattice-work of the stand. Similar paterae,
Mr. Akerman informs us, have been found in the graves of the
Franks.
In this bowl were deposited bones, some said to be human.
This, however, I am not fully convinced of. Also the bones of sheep
and oxen. For what purpose they were placed there, and whether in
the first instance with or without their fleshy adjuncts, I am unable to
determine. The circumstance, however, is remarkable.
A small metal pin, and a seax or knife, were also found in the
grave, together with a large sword, a relic but rarely discovered in
the Anglo-Saxon interments, and which is probably indicative of the
rank or high command of the deceased warrior.
Perhaps, however, the most interesting part of the remains were
the four gold coins, or rather medals, for the gold loops for suspen-
sion were portions of the original substance of the metal. They
were in size rather larger than a shilling, of very pure gold. They
were inscribed round the borders, the impression on one side being
a somewhat rudely sculptured head with a cap or helmet, and on the
reverse a sort of double cross with a ball or globe.
These coins, with the relic described above, doubtless formed a neck-
lace, and with the bulla as the centre-piece, and the two gold medals
on either side, must have constituted an ornament alike costly and
magnificent in the eyes of the followers and subjects of the chief who
bore it. I attribute to these medals a Frankish origin, for they ap-
peared to me, in the very brief inspection I had of them, very similar
to the examples found in the Sibertswold grave which are given by
Mr. C. R. Smith in the "Inventorium Sepulchrale," No. 172, and
ascribed by him to the Merovingian series, but a friend well skilled
in numismatic lore, and to whom I sent a somewhat imperfect wax
impression, owing to injury received in transmission, has given his
opinion that they are the coins of Mauricius, who, first a notary born
in Cappadocia, became afterwards a general, and a.d. 582 was raised
to the Roman empire.
This Anglo-Saxon grave, if such it was, appears to exhibit some
details which may give a different direction to our speculations, and
12 — 2
i8o Early Anglo-Saxon Remains.
may afford another proof that in our eagerness to attribute all similar
discoveries to the Jutish or Anglo-Saxon tribes, we too strictly ignore
Che existence of those other numerous island or continental septs or
nations who at one period of the history of Europe were in a con-
stant state of movement and progression, and who doubtless visited
England, sword in hand, either as the allies of the Saxons or of the
Danes, or as their rivals, claiming possession, or seeking conquests
in lands more inviting, or less contested, than those which they had
abandoned.
It is to be feared that this small but very choice collection of relics,
80 especially interesting to any Kentish antiquary, will be lost to the
county. The Kent Archaeological Society hoped, under the sanction
of the Government, to obtain these remains for an Anglo-Saxon
Museum in a central part of the county, where they would have
been daily accessible to the inspection of the public, considering
that such a repository could not be better established than in the
heart of that district where the Saxons founded their first kingdom.
But in this hope they have been disappointed, for after imagining
that their offer would be accepted, to their disappointment they
learned that another party had been fortunate enough to secure these
relics. Had they received any intimation that a higher price was
expected, they would have endeavoured to have met the views of
their holder, in order that these remains might have been secured for
their contemplated County Museum.
I am, etc. John Brent.
Antiquities found near the old Tilt-yard, Greenwich.
[i860, Part /., pp, 202-203.]
In the early part of December, 1861, during the progress of exca-
vations for making a new sewer at Greenwich, some antiquities were
found under the wall of the old Tilt-yard, facing the Hospital. My
attention was immediately called to the discovery by my brother, a
resident of that town, and to whom the workmen had brought the
relics in question. The depth at which the discovery was made was
about 1 1 feet, being 5 feet under the foundation of the wall. Here,
in a sort of gravelly deposit, were found, more or less perfect, what
appeared to be three bronze fibulae or plaques.
The discs of the relics are elaborately marked with a scroll-work
pattern, eacli spiral starting from the common centre, then expanding
into a leaf-like shape, and terminating towards the rim in another
scroll. The substance of the patterns is an enamel of a daric green,
upon a ground of enamel of a blood-red colour. A thin circle of
silver surrounds each figure, and also the disc, and beyond it is a
bronze rim, about a quarter of an inch in diameter.
The back of the ornament is bronze, apparently containing a large
Antiquities near the Old Tilt-yard^ Greenwich. 1 8 1
proportion of copper. At the top of the fibula is a substantial bend
or hook, terminating in a rude imitation of the head of a serpent ;
the under side of the extreme end is cixt or filed away, as if it had
been affixed to, or rested on, some substance. The weight of the
most perfect specimen is one ounce and a quarter^ and its diameter
rather more than 2 inches. One of the discs is imperfect from the
loss of the outer rim ; the pattern also slightly varies.
With these ornamtrnts was found a bronze ring about i inch in
diameter.
The workmen came upon human bones in the same spot, and three
skeletons were exhumed within 100 yards of the same locality.
There is a recess at ilie back of the most perfect of these fibulae, as
if it had contained a small mirror or reflector, and evident traces of
its having been soldered.
These remains evidently belong to a class which it has somewhat
perplexetl antiquaries to distinguish. For a Roman, Romano-British,
or an Anglo-Saxon origin reason^ might be suggested. Mr. C Roach
Smith has called my attention to similar examples in the collections of
Messrs. Bateman and Clayton, and to a girdle-clasp engraved in his
own '* Illustrated Catalogue," whilst a friend at Canterbury has strongly
corroborated the opinion that these relics are of Anglo-Saxon origin
by pointing out to me their striking resemblance not only in form and
imttem, and in the enamel-work of the discs, but also in the curious
terminal hook, to certain ornaments on the Anglo-Saxon copper bowl
found in i860 near Lullingstone, in Kent, and engraved in the third
volume of the '' ArchaeologiaCantiana.'*^ Indeed, the under part of
the terminal hook is cut away in a manner as if expressly intended to
rest on the rim of some vessel or utensiL
With the relics described as above, or in their vicinity, were found
some bronze pins, and what the workmen called '* bronze ring-money,"
but these articles were disposed of without my obtaining any authentic
description of their nature.
I am, etc. John Brent, jun., F.S.A.
Another Anglo-Saxon Cemetery in East Kent.
[1866, PariL,pp, 847-S4S.]
A few days since, in preparing land for a plantation, in the grounds
of the Marquess Conyngham at Patrixbourne, in an area of about 100
feet diameter, eighteen Anglo-Saxon graves were discovered. They
lay about east and west, as the graves at Sarre \ante^ p. 178], and
the interments were very similar in character, being cut into the solid
chalk beneath 12 to 16 inches of upper soil. With the exception of
one grave, which measured 6 feet in depth, the excavations varied
from 2 feet to 4 feet, and in length 6 feet
* See Gentleman's Magazine^ December, i86l, p. 584 [a review of " Archaeo-
logia Cantiana "].
I Si Early Anglo-Saxon Remains.
In this deep grave was found the characteristic t«ro-edged Anglo-
Saxon sword, the blade and handle measuring exactly 36 inches.
With it lay an iron spear-head, an umbo, and a knife.
Two shi^d braces, each with a stud at one end, were also discovered
with these remains.
In the other graves were found beads of glass, amber, and porce-
lain ; also a smaller sword, which is of slighter make, and in length,
handle included, 2 feet 7 inches, being similar to some examples found
at Sarre. Also a well-preserved spear-head, the blade of which
measures 13 inches ; some bronze buckles, heart-shaped studs (fig. 2),
and three iron knives, of the usual types.
As often occurs in these discoveries, one interment out of the group
yielded more interesting relics than all the rest. A well-made grave
produced about one hundred beads of glass, amber, porcelain, and of
bugle pattern ; an iron key, a long brooch or buckle, two or three
other bronze buckles, a broad silver spiral ring, which was found on
the left side, encircling the bone of the finger on which it rested at the
time of its owner's interment (see fig. 3) \ two small circular bronze
fibulae, set with garnets, resembling several similar examples found in
the Jutish graves of East Kent ;* a large iron buckle ; a circular
stud, marked with a pattern (fig. i); a knife, ferule, and an iron
ring.
The long bronze buckle (6g. 4) is a novelty in shape and pattern :
it is an elegant relic of Anglo-Saxon handicraft It has at one end (the
lower) a plate of silver, and is indented round its border ; it exhibits
a cruciform pattern, and its application to the deceased lady's dress
was no doubt as ornamental as it was useful.
We have, I think, in these discoveries evidence of another Anglo-
Saxon cemetery, and of one, perhaps, of some extent ; for the area
already examined, and not likely to be further investigated at present,
is of small dimensions.
Nearly on the summit of a gently rising ground, looking towards
the church and village of Bridge to the south-west and below it,
opposite, with a bright little river sparkling through its meadows, lies
Bifrons Park, a lovely vicinity for a last resting-place, with little of
that wildness about it that the old Anglo-Saxons seemed to love, as
indicated by their selections elsewhere.
Populous, too, must have been this neighbourhood, and selected
for special reasons by the Jutes for their habitations and villages — for
within the extent of a few miles we have many of their cemeteries :
Adisham and Bishopsboume Downs, with their tumuli explored by
Mr. Bryan Faussett ; together with Kingston, Barbara, Ileden, and
Breach Downs, the latter examined by the late Lord Londesborough ;
Bourne Park, by its owner, Mr. Bell; and Bridge Hill. Whilst
* See *' Arcbseologia Cantiana," vol v., plate i., no. S, p. 314.
Anglo-Saxon Cemetery in East Kent. 183
Wingham, Stodmarsh, and the rich and interesting cemetery at Gilton,
lie distant only a few miles across the country from these localities.
I am, eta John Brent, jun., F.S.A.
[1867, Part II., pp. 76-78.]
Another interesting discovery of Anglo-Saxon, or rather, to speak
more correctly, of Old English antiquities, has recently been made
at Patrixbourne, on the property of the Marquess Conyngham. You
may perhaps remember that in May, 1866, in an area of 100 feet
diameter, several ancient graves, described in the GentlemarCs Maga-
zine for June of that year, were opened, in preparing ground for a
plantation at Bifrons, near Canterbury.
Further rescarclies have now been made, and nineteen graves
opened immediately contiguous to the locality of last year's researches.
Indeed, from evidences which I have been able to gather of the dis-
covery from time to time of detached interments, it is probable that
nearly the whole extent of the side of the hill facing Bifrons Park
is one continuous cemetery.
From an inspection with which I have been favoured of the relics,
I can report as follows : The graves followed the usual conditions of
similar interments, and were cut from 3 to 4^ feet deep into the soil,
which, as is so commonly the case, is a chalk substratum.
Of weapons, one sword only, about thirty-five inches long, two-
edged and straight-bladed, has been found; four spear-heads, and
about six knives. From sixty to seventy beads, of various sizes,
patterns, and substances, have, been exhumed ; six of these are of
very pure crystal, and about the size of marbles ; one, however, is of
an hexagonal shape. The other beads are of the usual types, and
contain amongst them specimens in amber, glass, and porcelain ; one,
however, being a peculiar green glass bead of bugle shape, and more
than an inch in length.
The disputed point that the Anglo-Saxon or Jutish ladies wore
chatelaines is, I think, decided by specimens from these graves, two
of these objects being present amongst the remains — one a long
tubular suspensor of bronze, with bronze ring, and another (see
engraving No. 4), a ring upon which are suspended nine little bronze
plates, some being triangular, others diamond-shaped, and parallelo-
grams ; some bearing markings, or distinct traces of lines, as if sym-
bolical — in fact, to all appearance, charms. The whole is very
interesting. Amongst the discoveries was a silver spoon, ^>erforated
by nine holes, and two ear-rings (see engraving No. 3). The latter
objects were thin silver plates of a lozenge shape, highly ornamented
with the usual devices. Both specimens had had an oblong stone
or gem in the centre ; only one, however, remained — it was a purple
stone, probably of lapis lazuli.
There were seven or eight fibulae, clasps, or ornamented buckles.
184 Early Anglo-Saxon Remains.
One is a very large cruciform brooch, highly ornamented and about
6 inches long, of bronze gilded, and exactly resembling the fibula
found on Linton Heath, Cambridgeshire, by the Hon. Mr. Neville,
and described in plate 37 in Mr. Akerman's ** Saxon Pagandom."
The uncouth effi^ of g human face terminates this ornament
In the collection are also three small gold-washed fibulae (see
** Saxon Pagandom," plate 34, figs. 4 and 6). These examples are
enriched with archaic devices. Also a small gold brooch of five
garnets, of very elegant shape and workmanship (see engraving
Na i)l Two bronze cruciform fibulae, and two small saucer-shaped
fibulae, with the rude outlines of a human countenance. A piece of
tubular wire, like a spring ; the worm is very close and accurately
made. I am at a loss to divine its use.
Amongst the brooches are two united by snaps, very like those
commonly attached to ladies' sash-girdle& The patterns are elabo-
rate, and the designs completely northern.
Two ornaments, worked also with some knots and scrolls, gold-
washed, and of elongated rectangular shapes, somewhat similar to,
but smaller than those objects found at Sarr in 1864, grave 233, and
probably designed to be attached to a band or leatliem belt (see
engraving No. 2).
I might add, four glass vessels were also found. One was unfor-
tunately broken ; two have been partially repaired ; and one, a per-
fect specimen, 6 inches long by 2^ at the mouth, is very similar, but
not so long as the extremely elegant glass vessel described in plate 39,
vol. vL, of Mr. C. Roach Smith's *' Collectanea Antiqua."
I may mention a long bronze bodkin or hair-pin, ornamented down
the shank with lines, and having an hexagonal head. It is 6f inches
long.
Altogether the collection is one of great interest, and contains
more choice articles than are often collected in so small a compass.
There were some minute objects in bronze which time did not per-
mit me fully to examine. Some of the beads also deserve a more
minute description, as well as the gold-washed cruciform fibula, than
I have been able to give in this brief account. The locality whence
these antiquities were exhumed is undoubtedly the most prolific in
Kent, perhaps in all England, of Anglo-Saxon remains. Within the
compass of a few miles we have Kingston, Bourn, Barbara, Adisham,
Ileden, and Breach Downs, all of which have produced cemeteries,
and some of them extensive ones. We are led to a conclusion, I
think not unwarranted, that this district must either have been ex-
tremely populous, and a favourite settlement of the Jutes of Kent,
or that the dead were gathered together on these chalk hills and
downs from a distance. As no cemetery has ever yet been discovered
for the Anglo-Saxon population of Canterbury — Chartham, distant
four miles, being the nearest locality where relics have been found
Hot ton Kir by. 185
similar to those which I have been describing — we may ask, did
custom, religion, or convenience devote these hills and slopes as the
last resting-places of the " Cant Wara Byrig," the city of the men or
dwellers of Kent? Further researches, and a patient attention to
the inquiry, may perhaps in a few years decisively solve the problem.
I am, etc. John Brent, jun.
Horton Kirby.
[1867, p^tii^pp. 82, 83.]
Within the last month an Anglo-Saxon cemetery has been brought
to light at Horton Kirby, by diggings made for the foundations of
houses on the slope of the high ground adjoining the London, Chat-
ham and Dover Railway, on the eastern side of the viaduct, near the
Famingham Road Station. Several graves had been opened, and the
contents dispersed, before special attention was directed to the im-
portance of the discovery; but, fortunately, information was soon
given to the Rev. R. P. Coates, of Darenth, who immediately pro-
ceeded to the spot, and took measures to ensure the proper examina-
tion of the graves hitherto undisturbed. At the same time Mr.
Coates collected some of the antiquities which had not been 'carried
away by the workmen ; and he kindly invited me to assist him in
examining the site. During two days we accordingly attended, and
with some labourers laid open several graves; and determined on
suggesting to the Kentish Archaeological Society the expediency of
making a careful exploration of the locality. The portion of the
cemetery examined by us evidently had been restricted to the
poorer population of the neighbourhood. The graves were
sunk superficially only in the chalk, and cut without care or
method, contrary to those of the wealthier class, which are usually
sunk deep in the chalk, and smoothly cut and finished. In sevend
instances they had not been made long enough for the bodies to
be extended at full length, and consequently the skeletons had the
appearance of being doubled up or distorted so as to fit the graves.
The bones were generally much decomposed, and in the graves of
children had entirely disappeared. The social position of the tenants
of the graves we examined was, moreover, proved by the total ab-
sence of weapons and ornaments in many, and of the humble
character of the objects deposited in others. In nearly all, however,
a small knife was found near the left hip, especially in the graves of
women. The most interesting of those we opened disclosed a
saucer-shaped fibula, in bronze gilt, near the left shoulder of the
skeleton ; a small bronze sheath upon the breast ; by the left hip a
key and a knife attached to a ring, all in iron ; and by the right hip
a bone spindle-whorl — implements peculiarly characteristic of the
Saxon woman, as also of the English housewife, down to the last
1 86 Early Anglo-Saxon Remains.
century. From a grave opened previously to our superintendence^
Mr. Coates obtained a larger example of the saucer-shaped fibula,
having in the centre a cruciform pattern, between the limbs of which
are rudely-formed grotesque human heads : the smaller is set with
red glass or garnet Fibulae of this kind are very common in Saxon
graves in Berkshire, Oxfordshire, and Gloucestershire ; but hitherto
they have only been sparingly found in Kent : no example occurred in
the numerous graves in East Kent opened by Bryan Faussett. In one
of the Horton graves, it may be mentioned, was a small whetstone.
C. Roach Smith.
Faversham.
[1858, Part //,,/. $12.]
Some very interesting additions to our Anglo-Saxon collections
have recently been made in various parts of Kent, and particularly
near Faversham. They bear a very close analogy to the celebrated
Faussett collection, with the addition of some superb horse-furniture
in bronze, elaborately worked with interlacing pattern, partly silvered
and set with garnets. All the interments of the Saxon period denoted
burial of the body entire. Adjoining the cemetery, however, were
found Roman cinerary urns. The juxtaposition of Roman and
Saxon burial-places has been noted at Sittingbourne and Strood, and
at several other localities in Kent and in other counties.
Further discoveries of Saxon remains have also been found at
Bowcombe Down, near Carisbrooke, in the Isle of Wight, the scene
of excavations made by Mr. Hillier, and recorded in his history of
the island. They were accidentally brought to light, and would have
been destroyed but for the exertions of Mr. John Lock, who spared
no pains to save them.
[1866, /"art y/., /. 336.]
The Anglo-Saxon cemetery near Faversham has not yet ceased to
afford remains of art not inferior to the remarkable examples hereto-
fore discovered. During the present year Mr. Gibbs has added to his
collection what seem to be the products of two graves of persons of
distinction. The ornaments in gold are particularly elegant One
circular pendant the size of a half-crown is decorated with three
arrangements of garnets, representing the necks and heads of horses
springing from a circular concave centre, which probably was origin-
ally set with a jewel, the field of the gold plate being covered with
filigree work of the most delicate description. Another pendant, of a
novel kind, is no less beautiful. There is a fine sword ; and a bronze
bowl of the capacity of about half a gallon, quite different in some
respects from any heretofore discovered. It stands upon a circular
perforated foot, like many others ; but the upper rim, instead of being
plain, projects outwards an inch, and is vandyked. It has two move-
able triangular handles, one of which is a restoration in iron. There
Faversham. 187
are also two elegant glass vessels, an armlet, beads, etc., and a gold
Merovingian coin.
Stowting.
[1866, Pari II,, p. 758.]
Mr. John Brent, to whom we owe so much for his discoveries at
Sarre and other localities in this county, is at the present moment
making excavations on the site of the Saxon cemetery at Stowting,
which some years ago, owing to the vigilance and care of the Rev. F.
Wrench, contributed interesting materials for the study of our Saxon
funereal customs. Mr. Wrench himself printed an illustrated account
of his discoveries, and a report was also laid before the Society of
Antiquaries and published in their ' Archseologia.' Mr. Brent has
opened upwards of twelve graves, in which he has found some bronze
ornaments, fibulae, beads ; gold braid, found round a skull, as at Sarre ;
a very perfect wooden stoup or pail bound with brass, a very elegant
bronze bodkin, a bronze key attached to the remains of a wooden
box, and other objects, including two Roman coins, one of which is
of Constantine. The key is of Roman type ; but Mr. Brent suggests
that it may be of Anglo-Saxon make, as it evidently belonged to the
wooden box, which he considers can hardly be supposed Roman to
have been preserved so long as to be deposited in a Saxon grave.
Burfordy Oxfordshire.
[1814. PartlL.pp, 597-598.]
Nov. 2ist — As some workmen were employed in digging a road
from Burford, county Oxford, to Barrington, in Gloucestershire, about
a mile distant from the former place they discovered, 6 inches beneath
the surface of the earth, an immense stone coffin lying north and
south, which after three successive days' labour in clearing away the
surrounding mould, was found to contain a perfect male skeleton of
middle stature, having all the teeth entire. Unfortunately for the
curious, the labourers (supposing it to be a treasure), in their haste to
be satis6ed, broke through the lid of the coffin, which was very
closely fitted in a rabbet or groove with cement ; and by their rude
efforts threw into confusion the bones of one whom it is not improb-
able had lain unmolested upwards of one thousand years. The coffin
in shape differs from any I have ever seen or heard of, and weighs
nearly three tons : it was with much difficulty moved to an aisle
called Sylvester's, in Burford Church. Its admeasurements are
externally 6 feet 7 inches in length, 2 feet 9 inches depth at head,
2 feet 3 inches depth at feet, width very iregular. Internally it
measures 5 feet 1 1 inches in length, i foot 9 inches depth at head, i
foot 4 inches depth at feet. The lid, of the same shape as the coffin,
is 6 inches thick, and dropt in a rabbet 4 inches deep and i^ inch
i88 Early Anglo-Saxon Remains.
wide. On examining the coffin, a number of short nails with conical
heads were found completely oxidated and matted together in pieces
of hide; of which materials, from the circumstance of the nails being
thickly placed and clenched through several layers of the hide, it is
highly probable a shield was formed. From the concurring testimony
of the adjacent spot still bearing the name of Battlehedge, and from
the ancient custom of carrying about the town of Burford the figure
of a Dragon on Midsummer eve, it may not be deemed presumptuous
to fix the antiquity of the aforesaid coffin and its contents as early as
the middle of the eighth century, when several of our historians*
record a battle to have been fought near Burford, between the
Mercian King Ethelbald and the West Saxon King Cuthred or
Cuthbert, in consequence of the former^s overbearing exactions on
the latter, in which contest Ethelbald was subdued, and lost his
banner, said to have borne the picture of a Golden Dragon.
T. H. Hunt, Oxford.
Sepulchral Remains in Pagan Rutland.
[i«63,7\v* //.,/. 34.]
We have on several occasions alluded to discoveries made on the
site of an early Anglo-Saxon cemetery between North Lufienham and
Edithweston, the land being the property of W. R. Morris, Esq., of
the former place. The discoveries consist of articles in gold, bronze,
iron, glass, pottery, etc., in the form of fibulae, tweezers, ear-picks,
swords, knives, bosses of shields, beads, cinerary urns, etc. They
have been found when excavating for sand, of which there is a very
fine bed under the soil in which these relics were embedded. When
the men were engaged in removing some of the soil in May last, they
found at about 3 feet from the surface two more bronze fibulas, and
about a dozen glass and earthenware beads. Several of the beads
were tastefully variegated with stripes of brilliant red and green
colours in the form of St Andrew's cross, but this ornament also
could have no connection with Christianity. Mr. Morris has now a
large collection of beads, found on the same site, the majority of
them being glass of various colours, the ruby being very beautiful.
The most prominent portions of the Anglo-Saxon antiquities found
in the parish of North Luffenham are the cinerary urns. The pottery
of this period found in England occurs chiefly in the cemeteries
where cremation was practised — that is, in Mercia and East Anglia,
and consists of burial urns. They are usually made with the hand,
without the use of the lathe, of a dark-coloured clay, and are not well
baked : their colour is generally a dark brown, passing either to a
* See Speed's "Chronicle/* p. 343; also Samines' ''Antiquities of Britain,"
P- 557 \ who says at Burford, Shropshire, which is very improbable when situation
and distance are considered.
Chichester, 1 89
black or to a dark green tint The land on either side of Mr.
Morris's belongs to Lord Aveland, and near is another gravel-pit
where similar sepulchral remains have been found on removing the
surface soil, including a battle-axe, no similar weapon of war having
been discovered on Mr. Morris's land. The collection of Pagan
relics at North LufTenham is a remarkable one, and it will doubtless
be further augmented as the excavation extends. The antiquary
may rest assured that the greatest care will be exercised in preserving
these antiquities and also all others that may be brought to light by
Mr. Morris's labourers — Stamford Mercury.
Chichester.
[1792, Part 11^ pp. 593, 594.]
In the background is seen Bow, or Four Barrow Hill, so called
from four large barrows which are placed on the ridge of a high hill,
not more than 60 yards over, running out in a promontory beyond
the other Downs, commanding a most beautiful and extensive
prospect eastward to Beachy Head ; southward, the sea, with the isles
of Hayling, Thomey, and White ; west, the Dorset, Wiltshire, and
Hampshire hills; north, through different breaks of the hills, is
discovered Leeth Hill, in Surrey, and the hills in the north of Hamp-
shire ; at five miles south-east from the hills lies Chichester, and its
beautiful spire south-west \ and at a greater distance is Spithead and
Portsmouth, with the ships of war laid up in Stokes Bay, completing
this enchanting scene. I know of few places more desirable for the
northern nations to deposit their dead on. The barrows form nearly
a right line, running north and south, two barrows at each end, and
are each of them surrounded by a trench of 18 feet in width, are of a
bell shape, and concave on the top. The second barrow at the south
end is the only one that remains perfect, is 51 feet high from the
middle of the trench, and appears to be finished with greater care and
exactness than the others, so that the mouldering hand of Time has
not robbed it of the beauty of its workmanship and shape. The
other three, man has assisted in their destruction, they having been
opened, one not many years since, in which, as I have been informed,
were found bones mixed with ashes. The southernmost barrow stands
57 feet within an entrenchment, with a ditch inwards, which appears
to be carried round the top of the hill in an irregular form, but
tending[^to circular. Between the first and second south barrows is a
small circular hollow of 15 feet diameter, with a narrow raised rim,
not more than a foot in height On the north side of the second
south barrow b another hollow of the same form, and 18 feet in
diameter ; and, at equal distances between the two north barrows, is
a third, of 15 feet diameter.
If I may be permitted to hazard a conjecture, to which I am led by
I90 Early Anglo-Saxon Remains.
the following circumstances, viz., the name tradition fixes on the
barrows, the King's Graves, the name of the bottom directly under,
called by some Kingsley, #>., King's Field, by others Kill-king bottom
(where some years ago was held a large fair, but now disused, and
remarkable for nothing but the beauty of its retired situation, and the
number of exceeding large yew-trees growing thereon) ; and its being
on the borders of the South Saxon kingdom, against Wessex ; at this
place I should fix the scene of contention between Edelwalch, king of
the South Saxons, and Cad walla, an exiled nobleman of Wessex, in
the year 680, in which battle Edelwalch lost his life, and perhaps was
buried in one of the barrows directly above ; the second barrow from
the south, by the superiority of its workmanship, bids fair for the spot ;
and the victor was so roughly handled as to be unable to improve his
advantage; but, after his accession to the throne of Wessex, anno 685,
he again invaded the South Saxons, and reduced them in subjection
to the kingdom of Wessex. The number of slain appears to have
been great from the number of barrows dispersed all over the hills,
some of them very large; at the foot of the hill, to the south-east,
their numbers are very great, I having told not less than 20 of
different sizes on a piece of ground not exceeding four acres. They
are placed as nigh one to the other as possible, and cover the ground
in rude confusion.
EXPLANATION OF THE SECTION.
AA, surface of the hill ; a, trench surrounding the top of the hill ;
^^,from the middle of the trench to the top of the barrow, 51 feet;
cct outside of the south barrow to the first circular hollow, 5 feet ; cd^
diameter of the first hollow, 15 feet ; dd^ from the first hollow to the
second barrow, 3 feet ; dD, width of the trench 18 feet ; ee^ from the
middle of the trench to the top of the barrow, 51 feet : ^ from the
top of the barrow to the centre of the concavity, 15 feet; gg^ from the
second barrow to the second circular hollow, 2 1 feet ; gA, diameter of
the second hollow, 18 feet; ^^, distance from second south barrow to
the first north barrow, 115 yards; /V, from the first north barrow
to the third circular hollow, 39 feet ; ik^ diameter of the third hollow,
15 feet; kk, from the third hollow to the second north barrow, 39
feet ; HH, height of the first north barrow, 27 feet ; KK, height of
the second north barrow, 39 feet S.
Saxon Burial-Place near Salisbury.
[ISSS, Part J/,, f!p. 514, $15]
Excavations recently made at Harnham Hill, near Salisbury, under
the direction of J. Y. Akerman, Esq., the Resident Secretary of the
Society of Antiquaries of I^ndon, have disclosed the remains of an
extensive Saxon burial-place. About sixty-five skeletons have been
Saxon Burial- Place near Salisbury. 191
discovered, and among the bones have been found some very curious
Saxon ornaments, including beads, amber amulets, buckles, fibulae, a
ring like a hoop twisted twice round the finger, spear-heads, the boss
of a shield, the remains of a small casket, a comb, and, with other
things, a bodkin, ear-pick, etc., attached to a ring and worn by a
lady, apparently like a modem chatelaine. There have also been
found a fork, a gold iing in all respects like a wedding-ring, a solitary
knuckle-bone of a sheep, suggesting the game of tcUi^ a small article
with marks on it like a domino, and a Roman coin of the time
of Constantine. In compliance with the wish of a numerous body of
the citizens of Salisbury, these antiquities were exhibited in the
Council Chamber, where, at the request of the Mayor, Mr. Akerman
offered a few remarks upon them to the following effect : — " In the
summer of the present year I saw an announcement in the local
newspapers of the discovery of the umbo of a shield and spear-head,
on Hamham Hill. Having for many years past made our Anglo-
Saxon antiquities my study, and having explored many Saxon burial-
places in various counties of England, I at once concluded that this
locality was the site of an Anglo-Saxon cemetery, and wrote to your
townsman, Mr. William Fawcett, for particulars. Mr. Fawcett com-
municated with his noble landlord. Lord Folkestone, and the result is
before you. The spot is called the Low Field, not because it is in a
low tract of ground, but from its having been at one time covered
with hUaws, or tumuli, those small conical barrows, of which a great
number may yet be perceived in various parts of England, but
especially in Kent. They are notio be confounded with the larger
tumuli, which form such conspicuous objects on our Wiltshire
Downs, and which are ascertained to be of an earlier period. It is
the opinion of some of our antiquaries that Anglo-Saxon interments
were of two kinds, that is to say, tumular and non-tumular; but, with
all respect for such opinion, I cannot assent to it The very word
burial {bury^ a word of Anglo-Saxon origin) shows that the grave was
covered with a mound. Thousands of these mounds have, like those
at Hamham, been obliterated by the operations of the husbandman :
the ploughshare and the spade have destroyed, in numberless
instances, the traces of our Anglo-Saxon cemeteries before the intro-
duction of Christianity, when the Pagan mode of interment was
abandoned, though perhaps gradually and reluctantly, and the bodies
of the converted were interred within the graveyards attached to the
newly-erected churches. The first systematic exploration of the
Barrows of this period was undertaken by the Rev. J. Douglas, about
sixty years since, who published an account of his discoveries, and
shoved that the grouped tumuli in Kent must be ascribed to a much
later period than had been assigned to them by antiquaries of the
Stukeley school — in fact, to the period embraced within the arrival
of the Saxons in England and their conversion to Christianity.
192 Early Anglo-Saxon Remains.
From the time of Douglas nothing had been done by way of funher
investigation of these cemeteries until about twelve years ago, when
Lord Londesborough (then Lord Albert Conyngham) undertook, at
my instigation, the examination of a considerable number of barrows
in £ast Kent, the result of which was the discovery of many relics
similar to those now before ^ou." Mr. Akerman then alluded to
similar investigations made smce in other parts of England; and,
recurring to the Harnham antiquities, stated his belief that the re-
mains discovered were of persons previous to the introduction of
Christianity. *'It is just possible," he said, "though I think we
have no prooft whatever of the fact, that some of the bodies found
here were those of individuals who had been converted to the true
faith ; but appearances are against such a supposition. I have hinted
at the possibility of such being the case, because we find in the
Capitularies of Charlemagne a mandate directing that the bodies of
Christian men shall no longer be consigned to the tumuli of the
Pagans, but interred within the precincts of the church — a proof
that the heathen mode of interment still lingered among his subjects.
If anything would favour the conjecture that some of the bodies
interred at Harnham were those of Christians, it is the fact that some
of them were unaccompanied by any object of personal use or orna-
ment Several skeletons have been found without the accompanying
knife or any object whatever ; but nothing definite can be deduced
from this. Many pagan customs were allowed by the primitive
clergy, provided they were in themselves harmless. On the other
hand, the laws of the Franks, the old Saxons, and the Visigoths,
denounce with heavy penalties those who shall despoil a corpse
either before or after burial — a sufficient proof that the crime was so
common as to call for a specific enactment To this cause we may
perhaps assign the absence of relics in some of the Harnham inter-
ments. I have said that thousands of tumuli of the Anglo-Saxon
period have been obliterated by the ploughshare and the spade ; and
this must be manifest to anyone who has perused our Anglo-Saxon
charters, in which "the heathen burials" are frequently named in
the recitals of boundaries. Further, the word hUow gives name to
many places in England, as Ludlow, Taplow, Winslow, Onslow, and,
in this neighbourhood, Winterslow. In the graveyard of Ludlow a
tumulus once existed, and in that of Taplow one exists at this time."
Mr. Akerman then directed attention to the numerous antiquities
arranged on the table, which it is understood to be Lord Folkestone's
determination to present to the British Museum.
Discovery of Anglo-Saxon Remains near Scarborough.
Some interesting Saxon funereal deposits have been recently
brought to ligfit near Scarborough. There is a knoll of chalk rock
Anglo-Saxon Remains near Scarborough. 193
which forms almost the whole of the high land called Seamer Moor,
a great part of which has been cut away by a very extensive lime-
quarry. A few days ago the wife of one of the quarrymen brought
into Scarborough several gold ornaments and other articles, and sold
them to a shopkeeper, from whom they soon passed to Lord
Londesborough. Having ascertained the spot where these objects
had been found, Lord Londesborough resolved immediately to have
the place dug, and on Thursday last he and Mr. Thomas Wright
(then on a visit to his lordship) commenced researches. In sifting
the earth that had been thrown down, there was found a beautiful
lozenge-shaped pendant, set with stones, an extremely elegant gold pin
with an enamelled head, several fragments of other ornaments, and a
great quantity of fragments of iron and pottery. The ground above
was then trenched, but only one grave was found. It contained
a skeleton, with a few ordinary articles in bronze and iron. The
objects accidentally met with comprise the gold pendant and pin
mentioned above, a bulla consisting of an onyx set in gold, a snjall
gold ring, a large ornamental gold ring, a stiver ring resembling the
last in size and form, two ornaments in gold which appear to have
belonged to earrings, a large ring-formed fibula of silver, fragments of
a band of plaited silver wire, a number of beads of different sizes and
materials, a small urn in very perfect condition, and various other
articles. The gold ornaments give especial interest to this discovery.
It is seldom the more precious metals are met with in the Saxon
graves of the midland counties : and we do not call to mind an
instance of their having been discovered in interments of this epoch
so far north. The graves of Kent are by far the richest, as is
evidenced by the ornaments in the museums of Lord Londesborough
and Mr. Mayer.
The supposed Anglo-Saxon Remains from Kertch.
[1857, Part IL, p. 474.]
It is now a considerable time since paragraphs appeared in the
journals announcing that among the antiquities excavated by Dr.
McPherson at Kertch, and subsequently deposited in the British
Museum, are some Anglo-Saxon fibulae. This statement has been
repeated in various ways and in several publications without qualifica-
tion or reservation, up to the present time, when Dr. McPherson him-
self, in a very interesting account of his discoveries which he has
published,* designates the fibulse Anglo-Saxon, and considers that the
tombs from which they were obtained, together with glass vessels and
other objects, were the burial-places of soldiers of the Varangian
Guard, which, about the tenth century, became the body-guard of the
* "Antiquities of Kertch, and Researches in the Cimmerian Bosphorus,*' by
Duncan McPherson, M.D. London : 1857.
VOL. VL 13
194 Early Anglo-Saxon Remains.
Byzantine emperors. This appears to be not only Dr. McPherson's
own opinion, but that also of other gentlemen of known eminence in
matters of antiquity ; and the only doubt on the subject seems to be
whether the fibulae can be so late as the tenth or eleventh century,
which they must be if attributed to the VarangL There appears to
be no diversity of opinion as to their being really and truly Anglo-
Saxon, early or late ; at least, I have heard no doubts expressed. I
therefore venture to offer, through your columns, a few remarks on
these fibulae.
I do not think we are at all warranted in referring these objects
either to the Varangi or to the Anglo-Saxons of earlier times. Had
the tombs from which Dr. McPherson excavated them been of a
Teutonic origin, it would have been less anachronic to have ascribed
them to some of the soldiers from the North of Europe who, in the
later days of the Roman Empire, were quartered in the East, as we
learn from the Notitia. But the interments bear no resemblance to
those of the Teutonic nations ; and had it not been for the fibulae,
they would have been called Roman or Byzantine, without hesitation.
The fibulae certainly do resemble, in a remarkable degree, two
classes of the Anglo-Saxon, which may be called the radiated and the
cruciform. The latter of these are not engraved in Dr. McPherson's
volume ; but I understand they were found at Kertch in the same
tombs. The former have long shanks, with a bow in the centre, the
upper part radiated, and the ends of the spokes set with garnets. A
variety has the spokes curved in the shape of the head of a bird ; and
this variety I am not aware has ever been found in England, but it is
common to France and Germany. The other variety of the radiated
class is by no means common to our Saxon graves ; two or three have
been found in Kent, one in the Isle of Wight, one in Essex, one in
Lincolnshire, and perhaps a very few more might be enumerated ; but
the cruciform fibula is of common occurrence in the Saxon cemeteries
in the eastern and midland counties.
The inference I draw from the presence of these fibulae in the
tombs of Kertch is, not that they are Anglo-Saxon, but that they and
their counterparts in England have sprung from a common source,
and that that source is Roman. The Roman influence upon all
Saxon works of art is more or less striking ; and Dr. McPherson's re-
markable discovery will, I hope, lead to further facts which, there is
every reason to believe, will be of importance towards the study of
our Saxon antiquities. If, upon full search, it should not appear that
such objects are commonly found In the East, then, of course, the
Kertch fibulae must be attributed to some such accidental circum-
stance as Dr. McPherson suggests.
C. Roach Smith.
Anglo-Saxon Local Antiquities.
'3- J
ANGLO-SAXON LOCAL ANTIQUITIES.
Coronation Stone at Kingston-upon-Thames.
[1850* /^ix //., ^. 380, 381.]
THE coronations of seven of the Saxon Kings of England are
recorded as having taken place at Kingiton-on-Thames, viz.:
934. Athelstan, by ArchtHshop Aldhelm.
—all three sons of Edward the Elder.
959. Edgar.
975. Edward the Martyr, bis son.
978. Ethelred ll, brother of Edward.
1016. Edmund IL
The nide Btone on which they were crowned formerly stood against
the old Town Hall, in the Market Place, and was removed to the yard
of the Assize Courts, on the building of a new one in 1837; where it
has remained, preserved, it is tnie, but almost unobserved, to the pre-
sent time. The Town Council having had their attention called to
the matter, appointed a committee to consider it, and eventually
selected a suitable plan for its preservation, designed by Mr. C. £.
Davis, of Bath, and also made a grant of money towards defraying '
the cost of erection ; the remainder of the funds required were raised
by private contribution. The coronation stone has been placed on a
septagonal block of stone, 6 feet in diameter and 15 inches thick,
standing in the centre of seven stone pillars, connected together by an
iron railing, moulded after a design presumed to be characteristic of
the period. These pillars and the septagonal form cf the monument
are m allusion to the seven kings crowned in the town ; and, thanks
to the kindness of Mr. J. D. CufTe, of the Bank of England, and of
Mr. W. Hawkins, a penny of each monarch was placed under their
respective names. Speed mentions nine kings, namely, Edward the
Elder, son of the Great Alfred, in 900, and Edwy, son of Edmund,
198 Anglo-Saxon Local Antiquities.
in 955, in addition to the list above given ; but as other authoiiues
state only seven, the smaller number has been adopted. The shafts
of the pillars are of blue Purbeck stone polished, and the capitals of
Caen stone carved with Saxon devices. The spot chosen for the
monument seems most appropriate, for tradition has always fixed it as
the site of the palace of the Saxon monarchs ; it is in the open space
near Clattem Bridge, in front of the Assize Courts at the entrance of
the Market Place, where almost one thousand years ago some of the
coronations took place, the others being probably in the church. An
additional interest is thrown around the stone by the probability that
the veneration in which it was held by the Saxons did not originate
with themselves, but had descended from the Ancient Britons, by
whom it might have been held sacred for inaugurations and other
solemn and important ceremonies from a very remote period ; and
some weight is given to this conjecture by the fact of the stone being
a grey wether, or Druids' stone, similar in geological character to those
of Stonehenge. If this deduction be correct, the Kingston crowning
stone is in itself extremely curious, and may lay claim to very great
antiquity, without assigning to it quite so many years as are given to
the stone in Westminster Abbey, on which the coronations of our own
monarchs to the present day take place.
Being aware that some doubts upon the claim of Kingston-upon-
Thames to be regarded as the Kingston of the Saxon Chronicle had
been entertained by Mr. Benjamin Williams, F.S.A., of Hillingdon,*
we addressed an inquiry to that gendeman, which has produced a
reply which we have much pleasure in appending, inasmuch as it will
be satisfactory to the raisers of this monument
** Mention is made of the coronation of seven of our Anglo-Saxon
kings at Kingston, from Edward the Elder, in 900, to iSthelred IL in
978.
*' It is remarkable that none of our early chroniclers have identified
the Kingston in question. John of Bromton, indeed, says that ^dwy
was crowned at ' Kingston-juxta-Londinium,' but his work was drawn
up after the middle of the fourteenth century.
*' I had formed an opinion that the Kingston at which one or more
consecrations took place was Kingston- Bagpuze, in Berkshire, a town
of some importance at the time of the Domesday survey, and more
particularly that of ^thelstan, who was chosen king by the Mercians
in 925, and whose predecessors died at ' Fearndiin amongst the Mer-
cians/ which has been supposed to be Faringdon, in Berkshire. The
following facts influenced my opinion : First, King Alfred had a town
or fortress (beorh) at Kingston-Bagpuze.t Secondly, numerous Saxon
coins and an immense quantity of metal celts have been found there.
Thirdly, witans were held at Hanney and Shifibrd, which adjoin
• See "Proceedings Soc. Antiq.," vol. ii., p. 38.
t Cod. Dipl. N06. 1276 and 1277.
Coronation Stone at Kingston-upon- T/iames. 1 99
Kingston-Bagpuze, and at Abingdon and Witney (Witan-ige), not far
distant.
" It is no objection to allege that this is now an insignificant village ;
for so is Sutton, near Abingdon, although in the years 821 and 1042
it was a 'villa regalis.'* But on reference to Kemble's invaluable
' Saxon Charters,' it will be found that a great council was held, in the
year 838, * at the famous town of Kingston, in Surrey ;'t and, in a
charter of King Eadred's, anno 946, Kingston is mentioned as ' the
royal town where consecration is accustomed to be performed ;'J
whilst a third charter, dated from ' the royal town of Kingston,' con-
veys numerous lands in Surrey :§ so that the united evidence of these
charters appears to set the question at rest
"Sept. 4th, 1850." "B. Williams.
The inauguration of the monument took place on lliursday the
i9tli of September, in the presence of the Mayor and Corporation,
attended by the burgesses and a numerous assembly of visitors.
Who were the Anglo-Saxon Kings who were Crowned at
Kingston ?
[1851, Part IL^^, I25-I3a]
The circumstances commemorated in your magazine for October,
1850, have brought before the public mind the fact that Kingston-
upon-Thames claims to be the ancient place of coronation of our
Anglo-Saxon kings, but the real solid ground upon which its claim
unquestionably rests has not been satisfactorily shown, nor has it been
made to appear with anything like accuracy or certainty which of the
Anglo-Saxon kings received the regal anointing on that ancient stone
which the people of Kingston have lately so properly secured against
destruction. I have in the following paper thrown together all the
historical evidence with which I am acquainted upon these subjects,
and beg permission now to submit it to your readers.
I shall, in the first place, adduce the evidence which proves that at
a period of very remote antiquity Kingston was not merely a royal
town, a distinction which it shared with many other less celebrated
spots, but that it was a royal town of peculiar dignity and import-
ance ; "that famous or distinguished place," as it is termed in several
ancient documents, '* which is called Cyningestun, in the county of
Surrey." Upon this subject we have the evidence of six charters, all
of them of great interest, printed by Mr. Kemble in his " Codex
Diplomaticus," and ranging from the date of a.d. 838 to that of a.d.
1020.
The first charter is one of King Ecgberht, of Wessex, granted a.d.
* Cod. Dipl., Nos. 214 and 762. t ^**^-» No. 240.
% Ibid., No. 411. § Ibid., No. 363.
200 Anglo-Saxon Local Antiquities.
838 at a council or assembly held ^ io illo £unoso loco qui appeliatur
Cingestun, in regione Suthreie.'**
The second charter was also granted at the same council of a.d.
838, described as held **^ in ilia famosa loco quae appeliatur Cynin-
gestun in re;:ione Suthr^ie . • . anno dominice incamationis
DCCCXXXVIII.''t
The third charter, one of King iEthelstan, dated a. a 933, thus
concludes : ** Hoc vero constitutum fuit et confirmatum in regali villa
qua Anglice Kingestone vocatur ;" a statement sufficiently curious if
it indicates the rise of our English form of " Kingston " as opposed
to its Anglo Saxon predecessor. *' Cyningestune.''t
The fourth charter, one of King iSthebtan, Oct 6th, A.D. 943, is
dated '* in villa quae dicitur Kyngeston."}
The fifth charter not only mentions the place, Kingston, but attests
the iact of a coronation there. It is a charter of Eadred, '* Anno
dominicse incamationis 946, contigit post obitum Eadmundi regis
• . . quod Eadred frater ejus uterinus, electione optimatum subro-
gatus, pontificali auctoriute eodem anno catholice est rex et rector,
ad regna quadripertiti regiminis consecratus, qui denique rex in villa
quae dicitur regis, Cyngestun, ubi et consecratio peracta est"!!
The sixth charter is an Anglo-Saxon charter of Canute, granted
between 1016 and 1020. It begins — ''Here is made known in this
deed the agreement that Godwine made with Byrhtric when he
wooed his daughter," which '' waes gespecen aet Cincgestune beforan
Cnute Cincge on Lyfinges arcebiscopes gewitnesse" (which was
spoken, that is, agreed upon viv& voce^ at Kingestone, before Canute,
the King, upon the witness of Archbishop LyHnge).1I
Now these authorities show the importance of Kingston, not
merely as a royal vill, but as a place for the holding of royal assem-
blies, and, what is specially to our present purpose, one of them
marks it out as the scene of an actual coronation. However turbu-
lent the times, or uncertain the custom, a place once set apart for
royal sepulture or regal inaugurations is generally so hallowed by
prescriptive opinion and feeling, that it rarely loses for a course of
years its local influence. There seems no doubt whatever that
Kingston is entitled to the distinction of having been one of the royal
towns appointed for the latter purpose in the period comprised within
our Anglo-Saxon annals.
* Kcmble's •« Codex," v. 91.
f Ibid,^ i. 318, 319. The memoranda of confirmation appended to these first
and second charters 6x the date of the death of Egbert — a date given with great
uncertainty by almost every writer. The memorandam in the second charter is
rather the.more precise of the two, and thus concludes : " Anno ab incamatione
Christi 839, indictione 2, primo videlicet anno regni Ethelwulfi regis post obitum
patris sui.
t Kemble's "Codex," ii. 194. § /did., v. 278.
/did,, ii. 268. IT /did,, iv. 10.
Anglo-Saxon Kings Crowned at Kingston. 201
We will now consider what historical evidence there exists as
regards the actual coronations of Anglo-Saxon monarchs at Kingston.
The first monarch claimed as having been crowned at Kingston is
Edward the Elder, son of King Alfred. He was chosen by the
nobles, and crowned at the Whitsuntide after his father's death, i6th
May, A.D. 902. (William of Malmesbury, ed. T. D. Hardy, vol. i.
p. 194.) According to the chronicle of Ralph de Diceto,* he was
crowned at Kingston by Plegmund, Archbishop of Canterbury ; but
the chronicle of Johannes Brompton asserts that the ceremony was
performed by Ethulred the Archbishop,t a.d. 901.
If the Saxon Chronicle may be followed, there are two errors in
this statement, for Ethelred is there stated to have died in a.d. 888
(Petrie's "Historians," p. 362), or according to Florent. Wigom.
(Thorpe, vol. i, p. 108) in the following year He was succeeded by
Plegmund, who died a.d. 923. There are some curious lines by
Peter Langtoft in his chronicle (Hearne, vol L, p. 26), which would
seem to imply that the crown was assumed by Edward the Elder at
St Paul's :
"After this Alfred King Edward the Olde,
Fair man he was, I wis, stalwarth and bolde ;
At London at St Poules toke he the croane
And parveied his parlement of Erie and Baronne ;
lie seid unto them all : — ' that purveied it should be
That in all the land suld be no King but he.' "
This was probably asserted with reference to the contest for the
succession by Ethelwold, who was appointed by the Northumbrian
Danes their sovereign at York over all other kings and chiefs.
(Turner's " Anglo-Saxon History," vol. iL 167.) Edward the Elder
died at Faringdon, a.d. 924, according to the authorities quoted by
Sir F. Palgrave, " English Commonwealth," vol. ii., p. 243, and the
Saxon Chronicle, a-D. 925 (Petrie's "Historians," p. 382).
Upon his death, and that of Ethelward, the Anglo-Saxon sceptre
was given by the witenagemot to Athelstan, who was crowned at
Kingston by Athelm, Archbishop of Canterbury, in the year 925. {
The following extract from Sharpens translation of William of Malmes-
bury is an apt illustration of the coronation festival and the general
state of public feeling towards the new sovereign :
" The nobles meet, the crown present,
On rebels prelates curses vent,
• Twysdcn, vol. L, p. 452.
t Post mortem vero dicti regis Aluredi Edwardus filius suus modo cognomento
Senior regnum patemum capiens, A.D. 901, cepit regnare. Hie consecratus est
apud Kyngiston ab Ethelredo. Twysden, vol. i., p. 831.
X Athelstanus vero in Cingestune, id est in regia villa, in r^em levatur et
honoriJice ab Athelmo Dorubernensi archiepiscopo consecratur: Chron. FlorenL
Wigorn., Thorpe, vol. L, p. 130. Rogeri de Wcndover, Coxc, vol. i. 385.
Henrici Huntindon, in Savile, p. 354. Turner's *' Anglo-Saxons,'* vol. iL, p> 170.
Petrie's "Historians," p. 382.
202 Anglo-Saxon Local Antiquitifs.
The people light the festive fires
And show by tams their kind desires.
Their deeds their lofalty declare,
Though hopes sod femrs their bosoms shaire.
With festive treat the coort abounds.
Foam the brisk wines^the hall resounds,
The pages ran, the servants haste
And food and verse regale the taste.
The minstrel sings, the guests commend,
Whilst all in praise to Christ contend ;
The King with pleasure all things m
And all his kind attentions please.*
Athelstan died at Gloucester, in the sixteenth year of his reign, on
the 6th kalends of November [27th Oct], a.d. 94at
Athelstan was succeeded by his brother, Edmund the Elder, at
the age of eighteen ; but hb succession was disputed by the Northum-
brians, who chose Anla£ The date of his accession is given by the
following authority as a.d. 940 : " Eadroundus Rex Anglonim con-
secratus est ab Odone Dorobemensi Archiepiscopo apudKingestune**
(Radulph de Diceto, Twysden, vol. L, p. 454). This statement of
the coronation at Kingston, like the subsequent similar statement in
reference to Edward the Martyr, rests solely upon the authority of
Ralph de Diceto. The place of coronation is not mentioned in
the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, nor in the Chronicle of Florence of
Worcester, in William of Malroesbury, nor in the authorities in the
general collections of Twysden and Gale. Still, it may very well be
true. Ralph de Diceto, who flourished between 11 60 and 1200, had
no doubt the use of authorities which are unknown to us. The
death of Edmund by the hand of I^ofa is variously reported :
according to some authorities it occuned 26th May, indict. 4, a.d.
946, to others in a.d. 948, but the place is uncertain (see note,
William of Malmesbury, ed. Hardy, vol. L, p. 229).
Edred, who succeeded, was the third son of Edward the Elder,
* A remarkably interesting memorial of this ceremony stiU exists in the British
Museum — the Coronation Book of the Kings of England, upon which, from the
days of Athelstan, our Anglo-Saxon monarchs took the oath at their inauguration.
An illuminated page is given by Mr. H. N. Humphreys, in hb ** MSS. of the
Middle Ages,** and the b<x)k is most fully described by Mr. Holmes in the Gentle-
man* s Magazine for May, 1838, p. 469. *' No one," says Mr. Holmes, "can doubt
the antiquity assigned to it ; that it did belong to Athelstan, the grandson of
Alfred the Great, and that it was presented by him to the church of Dover ; there
is strong prima facie evidence that in the latter part of the fifteenth century it was
in the possession of Margaret of York, Duchess of Burgundy, sister of Edward the
Fourth, and that it was believed by her to have been used at the coronation of
former kings there is good proof ; and to the fact that it was used at the coronation
of Charles the First we have the positive testimony of a contemporary, the well-
known antiquary Sir Simonds D'Ewes." This book was the property of Sir
Robert Cotton, and it stiU forms part of his library. Mr. Sharon Turner con-
jectures that it was a present from Otho, Emperor of Germany, who married
Atbel.stan's sister, and from Mathilda the Empress and mother of Otho.
t Florent. Wigorn., Thorpe, vol. i. 132. Petrie's "Historians," p. 386.
Anglo-Saxon Kings Crowned at Kingston. 203
and was less than twenty-three years of age at his elevation to the
throne. He was consecrated at Kingston by Odo, Archbishop of
Canterbury, a.d. August i6th, 946. This fact is attested by the
charter before quoted from Kemble's " Codex Diplomaticus," vol. iL,
p. 268, and the authorities cited below.* There is some discrepancy
as to the date of the event Simeon of Durham and Ethelweard
place the death of Edmund and the succession of Eadred, a.d. 948.
This should seem inaccurate. If we follow the date of the charter it
would be placed a.d. 946 — ''Anno Dominican Incamationis, post
obitum Eadmundi regis, etc. — Eadred frater ejus electione optimatum
subrogatus, etc, etc., rex in villa quae dicitur regis Cyngestun, ubi
et cansecratio peracta estJ^ This fixes the date of the year. The
authorities cited give 17 kalend. Septembris [i6th August] as the
day of the month. That Edred had been consecrated a.d. 947 is
clear from another charter (Kemble, vol. ii., p. 274), where the
text runs — "quamobrem ego Eadredus Rex Anglorum ceterarumque
gentium in circuitu persistentium gubemator et rector," etc The
date of the month seems not fixed with equal accuracy. Eadred died
at Frome on the 23rd November, a.d. 955, according to Florence of
Worcester; a-d. 955, 956, Saxon Chronicle, and a-d. 957 .according
to the computation in ^Ethelweard's Chronicle (William of Malmes-
bury, cd. Hardy, vol. i., p. 232, note). Sir F. Palgrave's " Anglo-
Saxon Commonwealth " gives the date thus — ^a.d. 955, Edred died on
St Clement's Day ; which Lingard follows.
Edwy or Edwin succeeded to the throne upon the death of his
uncle at the age of sixteen — at least, it is so assumed, but his age is
as uncertain as his name (Turner's ** Anglo-Saxons," vol. ii., p. 232).
That he was consecrated at Kingston by Odo, Arghbishop of Canter-
bury, there seems no doubt, as the authorities cited show,t with
general agreement as to the date, a.d. 955, which is confirmatory of
that of the death of Eadred. Two years later the Northumbrians
chose Edgar for their king, and Edwy retained the south. He died
on the ist of October, a.d. 959.
Edgar, King of Mercia, his brother, succeeded, being about
* Mox proximus haeres Edredus fratri succedens regnum naturale suscepit et
17 kal. Septembris [i6 August] die Dominica in Cingestune a S. OdoDe
Dorubemensi Archiepiscopo Rex est consecratus, A.D. 946. — Florent. Wigorn.,
Thorpe, i., p. 134 ; Palgrave's "Anglo-Saxon Commonwealth," vol. ii., p. 249 ;
Roger de Wendover, Coxe, vol. i. 399 ; Radulphi de Diceto, Twysden, vol. L
45c ; Ranulphi Higdensi Polychron., Gale, vol. ii., p. 264.
t A.D. 955. Regis autem corpus Wintoniam defertur, et ab ipso abbate Dunstano,
in veteri monasterio sepulturoe honestissime traditur, cujus fratruus clito Eadwius
regis scilicet Eadmundi et sanctae iElfgivse r^nse filius monarchiam imperii suscepit
et eodem anno in Cingestune ab Odone Dorubernise Archiepiscopo rex consecratus
est. — Chron. Florent. Wigorn., Thorpe, vol. i., p. 136; Rogeri de Wendover,
Flores Hist., Coxe, vol. i., p. 404; Roger de Hoveden, Savile, p. 425;
Radulf de Diceto, Twysden, vol. i. 455 ; Chron. Johannis Brompton, Twysden,
vol. i., p. 862 ; Ranulph Higden, Gale, vol. ii., p. 265.
204 Anglo-Saxon Local Antiquities.
fourteen or sixteen years of age, and has obtained the surname of the
Peaceful He is one of the monarchs whose coronation has been
claimed for Kingstoa In considering the validity of that daim it
may be desirable to place before the resuler the following extract from
Lingard's ** History of England," vol L, p. 269. " It will excite
surprise," says Dr. Lingard, ^* that a prince of tUs character, living
in an age which attached so much importance to the regal unction,
should have permitted thirteen years of his reign to elapse before he
was crowned ; nor is it less extraordinary that of the many historians
who relate the circumstance, noi am has thot^ht proper to assign the
reason. The ceremony was at length performed at Bath with the
usual solemnity, and in the presence of an immense number of
spectators, May nth, a.ix 973." All authorities concur in the fact
that Edgar was crowned at Bath. There is not the slightest authority
in an^ one of them (if we accept a doubtful statement in Polydore
Vergil, which, in such a case, b no authority at all) to warrant the
claim of Kin^oa*
With reference to the delay of his coronation, it will have been
seen that Dr. Lingard remarks, ^ of the many historians who relate
the circumstance not one has thought proper to assign the reason."
How fieir such direct testimony may be wanting is matter for inquiry.
Mr. Coxe, in a note to his edition of Roger de Wendover, vol L,
pi 414, says, "The writers of the life of St Dunstan tell us that
Eadgar was not crowned until the seventh^ year of his reign, because
that until that time his penance for an offence upon the person of a
nun was not complete." So that some notice of the cause appears
to have been taken.
The cause in fact was a brutal indulgence of lust, a characteristic
of his life, which not even the favour or charity of his monachal
admirers can conceal He violated a lady of noble birth, who had
assumed the veil as an expected but insufficient protection. For this
offence he was vehemently reproved by St Dunstan, and underwent
a seven years' penance, submitting, though a king, to fast and to
forego the wearing of his crown for that period. (Sharpe, William of
Malmesbury, p. 186 ; Hardy, vol. L, p. 254.) Edgar died on Thurs-
day, 8th July, A.D. 975,
* A.D. 973. Rex Anglorum pacificus Eadgarus, mm setatis anno xxx, indictione
prima, quinto idus Mail [11 Mail] die Pentecostes a beatis praesalibos Dunstano et
Oswaldo, et a ceteris totius Anglise antistitibus in ctvitale Acamanni benedicitur, et
cam maximo honore et gloria consecratur et in regem ungitur. — Chron. Floren ;
Wigom., Thorpe, vol. i., p. 142 ; Roger de Wendover, Coxe, vol. i., p. 414 ;
Chronica de Mailros, Gale, i., p. 150 ; Ranulph Higden, Gale, vol. li. 264 ;
William of Malmesbury, Hardy, vol. i., p. 255 ; Henrici Huntindon Chron.,
Savile, 356 ; Simeon Dunelm., Twysden, vol. L 162.
t Is not this the seventh year of his penance, since thirteen years after his acces-
sion is the general date assigned to his coronation ? See note by Mr. Hardy, WilL
of Malm. i. 248, and Sharpe, p. 186.
Anglo-Saxon Kings Crowned at Kingston. 205
Edward the Martyr succeeded, according to general testimony, in
the same year. Radulf de Diceto appears to be the authority for the
fact of his being crowned at Kingston^ which has much of probability
in its favour. He gives the date a.d. 977.* Edward was murdered
at Corfe Castle, March 18, a.d. 978. His remains were burnt, and
his ashes buried at Wareham.
Ethelred succeeded, and was crowned at Kingston on the Sunday
next after Easter, 14th April, a.d. 978. The following is the oath
administered to the King by Archbishop Dunstan on that occasion :
*' In the name of the most holy Trinity I promise, first, that the
Church of God and all Christian people shall enjoy true peace under
my government ; secondly, that I will prohibit all manner of rapine
and injustice to men of every condition ; thirdly, that in all judg-
ments I will cause equity to be united with mercy, that the most
clement God may, through His eternal mercy, forgive us all Amen."
As all authorities agree generally in this statement, it will be only
necessary to refer to those upon whom it is founded. Ethelred was
crowned by Archbishops Dunstan and Oswald it there is some dis-
crepancy as to the year. He died at London, on Monday, 23rd
April, St George's Day, a.d. 1016 ^William of Malmesbury, ed.
Hardy, vol i., p. 300), and was buried m the Cathedral of St Paul.
He was succeeded by Edmund Ironside, who was immediately
proclaimed king by the citizens of London, and crowned at St
Paul's, and at the same time Canute was acknowledged by the
thanes of Wessex at Southampton. All authorities appear to concur
in this. The claim of Kingston has no support whatever. The
Saxon Chronicle, Roger de Wendover, and Florence of Worcester,
are silent as to the place ; but Brompton (Twysden, vol L, p. 903)
and Ralph de Diceto assert the fact of Edmund Ironside's corona-
tion at London, by Lyfing, Archbishop of Canterbury. Edmund
was murdered a.d. 1016.
With hii^ closes the series of Anglo-Saxon kings, claimed as having
been crowned at Kingston. The reader has now before him the
authority on which the claim of each of them rests, and can judge
how far it is valid or the contrary. For my own part I feel inclined
to allow that there b sufficient evidence to raise a high degree of
probability in favour of —
Edward the Elder, A.D. 902
Athelstan, a.d. 925
* " Edwardtis regis Edgari filiiis, consecratus est 4 Dunstano Dorobemcnsi et
Oswaldo Ebonu:ensi Arcbiepiscopis, apud Kingestune." — Chron. Twysden, yoI. i.,
p. 45S. This possibly coincides with Osborn, '* Vita Dunstani," and Florence of
Worcester.
t Roger de Wendover, Coxe, voL i., p. 421 ; Florent. Wigom. Chron., Thorpe,
vol. L, p. 146 ; Hist. Ingolphi, Gale, voL i., p. 54 ; Chronica de Mailros, Gale,
Yol. i., p. 151 ; Twysden, voL u, pp. 160^ 460, 877 ; Petrie's "Anglo-Saxon
Chron., p. 398.
2o6 Anglo-Saxon Local Antiquities.
Edmund the Elder, a.d. 940
Edredy a.d. 946
Edvry or Edwin, a.d. 955
Edward the Martyr, a.d. 977; and
Ethelred, a.d. 978.
Within three quarters of a century the little town of Kingston
was seven times made the scene of one of the most solemn of
earthly ceremonies. It would be curious to discover what tie of
property or local attachment induced the immediate descendants of
Alfred to fxn upon this particular spot in preference to Winchester,
the acknowledged capital of their paternal kingdom. This is an
inquiry which we have probably now no means of answering; but
whatever may have been the cause, the result must for ever make
Kingston venerable in the eyes of those who feel an interest in the
transactions of far distant ages, and love to recognise in places
otherwise, perhaps, of little interest or attractiveness spots consecrated
by deeds of valour or generosity, by the triumphs of law or the
solemnities of freedom.
The stone commonly called the consecration-stone, which has been
lately inaugurated at Kingston, is supported by tradition, and by the
analogy of the employment of stones for such purposes, both in the
instance of the coronation seat of our sovereigns to the present day,
and possibly also in the instance of the Pope's chair.
In Manning and Bray's '* History of Surrey," vol. i., p. 370, there is
an engraving of the Chapel of St Mary adjoining the south side of
the parochial church of Kingston, in which "were formerly to be
seen the portraits of divers of the Saxon kings that have been
crowned here, and also that of King John, of whom the town re-
ceived its first charter." This chapel fell down on the 2nd March,
A.D. 1729-30, and with it perished these interesting works of monu-
mental art. It is much to be regretted that no society exists with
funds sufficient to obtain accurate copies of such of these ancient
mural paintings as time and churchwardens have yet spared, important
as they are historically, as symbols of religious faith, and as materials
for the history of British art. S. H.
Offa's Dyke, near St. Briavel's, co. Gloucester.
[1831, PartlL.pp, 582.584]
Ofifa's Dyke is known to have commenced at Tiddenham in
Gloucestershire, near Chepstow ; but its line from thence to Old
Radnor is unknown, or undetermined. St. Briavel's in Gloucester-
shire is only a very few miles from Tiddenham, and I was greatly
surprised, when on a visit there for change of air, I was asked
whether I had seen the remains of Offa's Dyke in that parish. Upon
my reply in the negative, I was informed that it lan through a wood
Offds Dyke. 207
called the Fence near Bigsweir Bridge. I was most anxious to visit
the spot The gout having, however, placed me in Schedule A, by
disfranchising my locomotive members, and the brushwood rendering
it impracticable to ride to it, I was obliged to forego the pleasure.
But Charles Ransford Court, Esq., of St. Briavel's, assured me that
he had often crossed it, when shooting. The Dyke overhangs the
Wye, and the Fence Wood forms one (the northern) horn of the
crescent, in the centre of which stands the Castle of St. BriaveL
Hence arise two questions : (i) Did it cross the Wye to reach
Monmouthshire or Herefordshire? or (2) did it take a circuitous
route along the Gloucestershire side of the river ? Nicholson* says,
" When the Romans made their inroads into this island, about the
commencement of the Christian era, many of the Britons were said
to have retreated into Wales, at which time the River Dee, in the
neighbourhood of Chester, and the Severn divided the two countries.
All to the east was England, and to the west Wales. This division
continued about 600 years, when the ambitious Offa, coveting the
fertile lands of his neighbours, easily raised a quarrel and an army.
He then drove them west among the mountains, formed this vast
Dyke, and ordained that neither English nor Welsh should pass it."
I shall not attempt to decide which way it went, because such an
attempt as exploration of the track, which would alone be satisfactory,
is by me impracticable.
Nevertheless, without committing myself, for the reasons just
given, it may be hypothetically and yet fairly stated, that it did not
cross the river until it arrived at Monmouth, but followed the
Gloucestershire bank of the Wye, as far as that town. In favour of
this hypothesis it may be observed, that two-thirds of the Dyke from
Mold in Flintshire to Old Radnor (nearly eighty miles by the scale
on the map), have been clearly ascertained From Mold to Llan-
gollen it is a gentle curve, and from thence to Old Radnor nearly as
straight as a Roman road. If we assume that the remaining third
assimilated in form and direction the two others, it would proceed
from Old Radnor to Clifford, thence to Llanthony, Crickhowell,
Abergavenny, and Pontypool, and have entered the mouth of the
Severn somewhere between Caerphilly and Newport ; but, had it done
so, it would have been twenty miles to the westward of either the
Old or New Passages. Not to lose this connection appears to have
been the object of commencing the Dyke at Tiddenham, and of
deviating from the preceding line. The direct line from Radnor to
Tiddenham is through Trelech, Grosmoifht, and Bradwardine, in
which direction it must have crossed the river twice. But as the
remains of St BriaveFs show the line of continuation, it must have
followed the river down to Monmouth, and perhaps have crossed the
Wye at that place; for the deviation from the direct line between
* *• Cambrian Traveller's Guide," p. 910.
2o8 Anglo-Saxon Local Antiquities.
Tiddenham and Monmouth along the river is very trifling, and from
thence by Grosmont and Bradwardine to Old Radnor, according to
the map, the line is straight
Another circumstance is observable. Where the course of the
Dyke is known, there are old Roman or British camps in contiguity,
or in the vicinity, besides mounts or small forts upon the line itself
Ofiia seemingly imitated the valla of Hadrian or Severus ; the mounts
being substituted for towers, and the camps used for garrisons or
reserves. A similar coincidence occurs in the line now under discus-
sion. There is a camp in Caswell Wood, not feur from St Briavel's,
and the " Devil's Pulpit" (a rock visited by tourists, on account of
the fine bird's-eye view pf Tintern Abbey beneath it, on the Mon-
mouthshire side of the river) is within the entrenchment There is
a line or mound from this camp, which can be traced nearly to a
tumulus on the west side of the road, and situated near the mansion
occupied by Mr. Trotter. This line appears to have communicated
with St Briavel's. This information I received from a very intelli-
gent gentleman engaged in the Ordnance Survey ; and I have visited
the Devil's Pulpit, passed Mr. Trotter's gate up a straight Roman-
road-looking wide lane, and observed every indication of the accuracy
of the account. The part of St Briavel's under discussion is a lofty
elevation, of a Q form, part of which the Greeks would have
scooped out for a theatre. The straight side of the Q is the river
towards the west ; the adjacent lower area resembles the pit ; and
the ascending semicircular sides the boxes and galleries. In the
centre of what we should call in a playhouse the upper gallery is the
castle. But the piece of OfTa's Dyke lies in the Fence Wood, and
has no communication with the castle, but runs across the extremity
of the northern end of the semicircle. I have heard that there are
still remains of a very ancient lane from Bigsweir, which pointed
towards Monmouth.
From the castle and village an old road passes by a camp called
Stow-green, towards Clearwell, a hamlet of Newland. This parish is
adjacent to Staunton and Bury-hill, where, from inclusion in Bletislan
hundred, the Rocking-stone, and a Roman way, and other indicia,
not found at Monmouth, was to all appearance the Blestrum of
Antoninus. About three miles farther, on the same Gloucestershire
side of the river, is a Roman encampment at Symond's Yat, and,
somewhat diverging to the east, the Roman camp on Ross Chase,
and Ariconium. On the known line of the Dyke, commencing in
Herefordshire, at or near Lentwardine, are the two famous camps of
Coxsall Hill and Brampton Brian — one of Caractacus, the other of
Ostorius ; and so fortresses continue to skirt it along the whole of its
course. It is not, however, impossible but that, instead of crossing
the Wye at or about Monmouth, it actually accompanied the circuit
of the Wye by Ross and Hereford to Bradwardine \ for the visible
Offds Dyke. 209
course of the Dyke runs in a straight line, and ceases to be discover-
able at Old Radnor, which, according to the scale, is only as one
10 miles, in a straight line north to south, the uniform direction of
the Dyke from Bradwardine. Nicholson says, " Knighton,'' also called
" Tref-y-clawd," i.e., the town upon the Dyke; for Offa's Dyke enters this
parish on the north from the county of Salop, and after running for
two miles in almost a straight line to the south, it is plainly to be traced
through the parishes of Norton, Whitton, Discoed, and Old Radnor,
into the county of Hereford, 1.^., to Lentwardine, which is situated at
the end of the ninth mile on the road from Ludlow to Knighton. It
is also to be observed that the Dyke running in a straight line north to
south bisects Wales longitudinally, though not in equal proportions.
It may, therefore, be assumed that it continued to proceed in the
same straight line north and south from Old Radnor to Ttddenham.
That straight line has been before noted, as going by Bradwardine,
Crickhowel, Abergavenny, Pontypool, and Newport, which direction
does not bring it to 1 iddenham, as, if the map be correct, according
to the straight line from north to south it ought to do. As no further
remains have been discoverable beyond Old Radnor, it mighty there-
fore (I do not say that it did), have accompanied the river from
Tiddenham to Bradwardine, and thus made boundaries of both the
Wye and the Severn ; for otherwise the Wye could have been a
boundary only for a comparatively few miles, as will be plain from
the positions of the places upon a map, both in straight line and
round the river.
It might not be difficult for a sturdy pedestrian to start from Old
Radnor in a north and south direction, by the places mentioned, and
so try the straight line for remains, duly observing the bearings of
aberrations (if any) from the straight line, and following such devia-
tions to their extremity. If nothing be discovered, and there will be
nothing in such a direction, as the Dyke passes through St Briavel's,
let him make a second attempt by going from Monmouth by Gros-
mont, and from thence to Bradwardine in a north-west or north-north-
west direction. If both these fail, it is possible, though not certain,
that the Dyke accompanied the river as far as Bradwardine.
I have made these hypotheses from the map, because there being
no other remains known than those specified, the map was my only
resource. Having only a wish, as an antiquary, to have the real line
discovered, I heed not the tenability of any of the hypotheses. I
only in my own defence say that, if the line does not go in one or
other of the above directions, the map is either inaccurate or the
line from Old Radnor to Tiddenham is anomalous to the straight
north and south direction of the known parts. By the Dyke going
from Tiddenham to St BriaveFs and probably to Monmouth, Gros-
mont, and Bradwardine, there is an aberration to the east, but it is
VOL. VI. 14
2 JO Anglo-Saxon Local Antiquities.
the shortest line of any, according to the map, and on that account
may be the exploratory direction most likely to succeed.
T. D. FOSBROKE.
[1832, PartlL.pp, 500-503.]
Some time ago I communicated to you certain observations con-
cerning the line of Offa's Dyke, between Tiddenham or Beachley
Passage, near Chepstow, and its remaining progress until it reaches
Old Radnor, on the other side of the Wye, whence its line to the
Dee is satisfactorily ascertained. A piece of it has been always
traditionally understood to be extant at St. Briavers, and there I ac-
cordingly commenced my research.
The line of the Dyke from its commencement to its termination
is stated, according to the compass directions in Nicholson's map, to
have proceeded from south to north, through Knighton, Montgomery,
Fool (thence crossing the Severn), by Llangollen and Mold, to Holy-
well ; that is to say, to their vicinities. Of course the only desi-
deratum is, its progress from Tiddenham, County Gloucester, to Old
Radnor, and to part of this desideratum my explorations apply.
J began, according to local directions, at a part of the new road
which leads from St. Briavel's to Monmouth, because such new road
bisects the Dyke between a coppice wood called Margaret's Grove
on the southeast, and Littlewood, another cover, part of a long one
skirting the Wye, north-west, on the opposite side.
I made my first investigation in a south-east direction. On that
side, the causeway of the Dyke, partly levelled by art, at the outset
forms the boundary between Margaret's Grove, above mentioned, and
a piece of arable land on the western (or Welsh side), called Cumbers
{qy. Cambers?) land. One half of it lengthways was, I was told,
levelled about forty years ago, and the earth scattered about the field.
Within the wood, it appears (as described by Mr. Gough, in North
Wales) an elevated causeway, in places from 10 to 12 feet high, and
30 or 40 feet broad. I followed his portion to its termination in a
bog; but could not discover any further traces. Taking, however, the
strait line south-east (the direction of Tiddenham), it apparently went
from Margaret's Grove across Drypiece, and fields belonging to
Lyndhurst Farm, to a place in St. Briavel's called Cold Barbour^ a
denomination of most remote ancientry, and indicative of archaeo-
logical locality. Thither I proceeded, and found it a bleak place,
which I could only infer might have been a British settlement, but
without barrows or any other indicia (which, as the spot was inclosed
common, may be nothing) than roads running in all directions. I
followed that which went south-east, and saw about two miles off, in
a straight line, a farmhouse called Ma^t, pronounced May'et Here
there is a Roman camp, and from thence to the passage where the
Dyke begins may be, as I was told, five or six miles.
Off as Dyke. 211
My second exploration was in the opposite direction, viz., the
north-east, through Littlewood or the Fence. I there found it in high
perfection, an elevated ridge or causeway, with a ditch on each side.
The coppice wood was so thick, and the probable aspect that which
might bring me through the whole skirt of cover that leads to Red-
brook in Newland, four or five miles off; so that, afraid of blows on
my eyes from the boughs, and the fatigue of jumping over some of
them and pushing others aside, I was obliged, through gouty feeble-
ness, to relinquish my chase in about a quarter of a mile. If I had
had my horse brought down to the road whence I started, I would
have gone to the woodward of Georgfe Rooke, Esq., who owns the
estate, and acquired such information as I could have gained from
him relative to its further progress ; but I was so knocked up as to
be barely able to regain the village.
At my son's (the curate of St. Briavel's) I found a work in four
volumes, 4to., entitled "Lewis's Topographical Dictionary." It is
there said, under the article " Colford," that " vestiges of King Offa*s
Dyke may be distinctly traced in some parts of the town.'' But, ac-
cording to the maps, Colford lies too far eastward. I applied the
compass upon first mounting the Dyke, and found its line to be
north-north-west, and upon further advance north-west. According
to Sir Robert Atkins*s map, its progress is directly north, as it is in
that of Nicholson, upon the other side of the Wye.
There is no trace of its known Welsh accompaniment, Watt's
Dyke, the ground beneath being neutral ; but it is skirted at unequal
distances by the old road from St. Briavel's to Monmouth, now stopped
up. Both the dyke and road are elevated beyond inundation from
the Wye.
The chroniclers who mention Offa's Dyke describe it as merely a
boundary between the dominion of the Welsh and the kingdom of
Mercia; but either y}[\txt'^^.% another OffcCs Dyke ^ ox this before us
had the following origin. Matthew Paris has written the " Life of
OfTa," and he says that Ofifa had defeated the three kings of the
Northumbrian, Southern, and Western Saxons at Benson so severely,
that they and their remaining men were obliged to take refuge in a '^ cer-
tain municipium " (presumably Wallingford). There Offa blockaded
them, with the intention of starving them into surrender ; but it ap-
pears that he did not relieve his guards, for on the third night follow-
ing (a very dark one) the wearied besiegers went to rest, and the
prisoners escaped. They did not stop until they had reached the
confines of Wales. Soliciting the aid of Marmodius, king of that
country, they persuaded him to think that Offa, like Polyphemus,
only intended to eat him last, and he received the fugitives because
he thought that their troops augmented his own forces. Offa sent
messengers to demand his prisoners, but they represented to Mar-
modius that he (Offa) was "only a wolf in sheep's clothing." A
14-2
212 Anglo-Saxon Local Antiquities.
supercilious answer was accordint;ly returned. Offa thereupon seized
and garrisoned all the forts and towns of the fugitives. Soon after-
wards a day and place were appointed for a pitched battle between
them. Night put an end to it without victory on either side. The
time was the end of Advent, just before Christmas; and Marmodius,
deceiving Offa with flattery and appeals to his religious feelings,
solicited an armistice. OfTa, wishing his horses and servants to be
refreshed, and his wounded to be cured, assented. But neither army
being willing to separate far from each other, Offa, with the assent of
both armies, drew between them a long and deep ditch, with a very
high rampart towards the Welsh, lest he should be anticipated by
budden irruptions of his deceitful enemies ; and that he might per-
form the offices due to the Christmas solemnity, he built on the spot
" a small church," both which dyke and church occupied the time of
only twelve days. To perpetuate the memory of this event, says
Matthew Paris, '* fossa ilia Offa dicitur, et ecclesia Offekirk usque in
hodiernum diem appellatur;" i>., ''that ditch is called Offds^ and the
cki\rcd\ Offekirk^ to this very day."* Now the only Offchurch known
at present lies in Warwickshire, and at a palace there of Ofifa^ Fre-
mund his son was born.f It will soon be seen that the Dyke and
Offekirk alluded to by Matthew Paris lay in the confines of Wales.
But to proceed.
Marmodius took advantage of the armistice, and collected all the
forces possible. On Christmas Day OfTa's army indulged in the fes-
tivities of the season, and became careless and incautious. On the
following night (St. Stephen's Day, Dec. 26), a dark one, Marmodius
and his allies, by the aid of the neighbouring rustics, silently filled
up the ditch, and levelled the rampart to the length of a bow-shot.
At break of day they rushed on at this breach, and taking Offa by
surprise, completely routed his army. Bad weather and a heavy snow
foUowmg, and the country being marshy, the Welsh did not pursue,
and Offa returned to his own country. He did not suffer them to get
head by long delays, but again led a very strong army, equipped fully,
and abundantly provisioned, into the confines of Waks^ and there
cooped up his enemies in a defile (in arcto), and they, thinking the
place where they had triumphantly passed the Dyke would be fortu-
nate, fought a great battle, and by retreating to their lurking places
and frequent desultory attacks often repulsed him. Ofla, at length
enraged, headed his troops, formed them into a wedge, as Matthew
Paris calls **cornu militare in modum pyramidis," and completely
defeated them. The result which followed was the massacre of all
the Welsh males, not sparing infants. On the morrow of this vic-
tory (which was gained in the year 675), Offa ordered the bodies of
the noble and higher ranks to be honourably buried, and those of
them and the common people which were so mutilated that they
* M. Paris, 974, 975. t Gough.
Offds Dyke. 213
could not be distinguished to be interred in that very breach of the
dyke which they had made, and the rampart to be again thrown up,
to prevent desecration by wild beasts, and cr)ntagion of the atmo-
sphere. This is all that Matthew says of an Offa's Dyke^ and adds,
that he was the first of our kings who made his progres<^es precedecl
by trumpeters, to show his power and excite fear.*' That Matthew's
OfTa's Dyke, " a mere boundary between two armies," could not be
the lengthy one now known, is plain \ yet it appears from other aiuhors
that they assume the present dyke to have been the one through which
Marmodius and his allies made the breach, and that the last giand
battle was fought near Rhyddlan Marsn,t in Denbighshire, the bathing-
place of Abergeley standing upon the edi^e of it. But if Otfa discon-
tinued his dyke near Treuddyn, in Flintshire, Rhyddlan lies, according
to the map, ten miles to the westward.
T. D. FOSBROKE.
[1835. Part /., pp. 504, 505.]
Some remarks on the course of Offa*s Dyke, by the Rev. T. D.
Fosbroke, F.S.A., having been inserted in this magazine, vol. ci. ii.
582, vol. cii. iu 500, we think it desirable to transfer to our pages,
from the i8th number of the Cambrian Quarterly Mai^azine, some
observations on the presumed direction of the same ancient earth-
work through the county of Hereford, by Sir Samuel R. Meyrick,
Iv. n., F.S.A.
From Knighton in the county of Radnor, called by the Welsh
Trev y clawdd, or the town on the Dyke, the line of Offi's stupendous
work has been traced in a very satisfactory manner ; but from that
point southward there are only occasional indications. Strutt
(Chronicle of England) assigns the whole county of Hereford to the
kingdom of Mercia ; but the existr*nce of the Dyke, with Us proper
name, between Upperton and Bridge Solers, on the Wye, shows that
this cannot be true of much more than one half.
It strikes me that those who have endeavoured to trace the bearing
of this singular remam of antiquity, have undertaken the matter with
the same predilections as would have guided them in the investiga-
tion of a Roman road, forgetting that the Romans, making their
lines of communications, did so through a conquered country, and
therefore would vary as little as possible from the straight direction.
OfTa, on the contrary, wished to mark the boundary of his kingdom,
which extending much further west in some places than in others, he
could not avoid giving to his work an irregular appearance. Now, I
think we have a most rational gui<1e in the celebrated Denbighshire
antiquary, Humphrey Llwyd.:}: He gives us a clue that it is worth
>%hite to put to the test, when he tells us that almost all the places
• P- 987.
t Nicholson's " Cambrian Traveller,** p. 455.
X Comment. Brit. Descrip. 42.
214 Anglo-Saxon Local Antiquities.
on the Mercian side of the Dyke '^ in ton vel ham finientia habent^'
After taking those spots where this earthwork is known, as fixed
points, should it be possible to draw a line from one to the other, so
that on one side there be Welsh names for places, while on the other
they are invariably English, I think the fair inference must be that
the original direction is pretty nearly, if not exactly, ascertained.
The roost northern point in Herefordshire where Ofifa's Dyke is
known, is in the parish of Leintwardine, a name of Cambrian origin.
This is distant from Knighton about eight miles, almost due east ; the
Dyke therefore must have run parallel with the Wye, or that river
served as the boundary of Mercia instead. The next certain point
is Grimsditch, rather more than a dozen miles nearly due south from
Leintwardine. The corrupted Welsh name of Pembridge (probably
once Fenybont) shows where the track must have crossed the river
Arrow. From Leintwardine, therefore, to Pembridge, the first place
would be Walford, or the ford of the Vallum, and thence, parallel
with the stream, having on the Welsh side Upper and Lower Ped-
wardine, and on the Mercian, Letton : thence to Creekmelyn, a
mound on which might have stood one of the watch-towers, and so
on through Shobden Park to Pembridge, which is exactly due south
of Leintwardine.
Grimsditch is about two miles south-south-west of Pembridge.
From this direction it went south-south-east to Upperton, four miles,
as from this point it is seen in great perfection crossing Mansel
Gamage to £ridge Solers for a similar distance. The Wye itself next,
in all probability, afforded the boundary for a mile and a quarter,
making a slight curve, but still keeping the same direction, and just
beyond we meet again with an indication of it under the name of
Tond-ditch. Hence it probably took a west-south-west course
towards Gorty Common, and so on to Wal brook, between Aconbury
and Dewchurch (Eglwys Dduw), and by Hentlas to Altbach, opposite
Aramstone, where it again met the Wye. Here the river acted
perhaps instead of the Dyke, flowing for about a mile in a south-
south-west direction towards Llanfrothen, or it may have crossed the
river by Aramstone to Penalt, and thence by Pennaxton to Hentland,
corrupted from Henllan. From this the direction was towards the
river Luke, having on the Welsh side Pengethley and Dafarluke, and
on the Mercian, Sellach, Peterstow, and Wilson. Continuing the line
of the Luke, it would nearly meet the Wye again at Pencreek, or rather
Penrfig. Here I conceive it entered my grounds, and went along
what in my oldest title-deeds is called "The Lord's Way,'' that is,
the road used by the owners of Goodrich Castle to Pencreek. This
road, before I gave a more commodious one in exchange, led from
Pencreek, or as it is now called Pencraig, to the village of the
Croose, which has been so named from having been formed about
Y Crwys, the Cross-house, still having the remains of the shaft on
Off as Dyke. 215
its roof, where the four gables meet If this road, which in some
parts has more the appearance of a dyke, divided Mercia and Wales,
it is not to be wondered at that the farm close on its western side is
still called Bryngwyn. Taking a direction from hence almost south,
either along the road to Huntsholm ferry-house, and allowing the
river to be the boundary, to opposite Symond's Yat, or running along
Coppet-hill to that point, it here crossed the stream, and having left
the county of Hereford, entered through this pass in the rock that of
Gloucester. From Symond's Yat, or Gate, the line is nearly due
south to Coleford, Sl Briavel's and Tiddenham (see Mr. Fosbroke's
Letters), at all which places Ofia's Dyke is known, and just beyond
the latter place it fell into the Bristol Channel, near the mouth of
the Wye.
[1835, Part L, pp. 490, 491.]
In the Gentlematis Magazine for 1833 (vol. cii., p. 501), I offered a
communication concerning a topographical desideratum, viz., the
progress of Ofifa's Dyke upon this, the Gloucestershire side of the
Wye, which progress, tradition says, commences at the Old Pjissage
near Chepstow, and from the occurrence of pieces of earthworks has
been deemed to proceed to Coleford, in the Forest of Dean.
Tradition is not to be despised, because, though it has not the
character of evidence, it has that of suspicion, which is often a jackal
to a lion. In the instance alluded to, as in many others, research
only leads to the inference that the tradition concerning this Glou-
cestershire progress of Offa's Dyke, is similar in authority to a ghost
story — an ocular spectrum derived from earthworks (apparently
Roman) and a wrong appropriation of history, relative to Offa's Dyke.
A gentleman * and neighbour of consideration, as well as of no
small penetration and intellect, as well as skill in archaeology, has
written to me a letter, of which the following is an extract :
" It is true that Offa's name is given to the Roman lines, the
Danish camp, and the British works accompanying Leman's Akeman-
street through my Sedbury estate, which fill up all assailable intervals
of precipices from the termination of your investigation at Caerswall
to my cliffs on Severn ; but if Offa had anything to do with refortify-
ing these, I think it must have been for a tnititary defence of the
termination of his line, and that the Wye was the conventional demar-
cation of countries. It is difficult to suppose that he would have
suffered the continuance of a Welsh ground between the Wye and his
defences on the cliffs."
It is familiar that the Severn formed the most ancient division
between England and Wales. The Monmouth and Herefordshire
* George Ormerod, Esq., of Sedbury Park, uear Chepstow.
2i6 Anglo-Saxon Local Antiquities.
banks of the Wye are, in the ancient records, both in Wales ; but in
the Anglo-Saxon era, the Wye, beyond Hereford, was made by
Athelstan the boundary between England and North Wales ; while,
with regard to South Wales, Higden says : '* Flumen Vaga apud
castrum Strigulense in austro Walliam ab Anglia secuit. Insuper et
Rex Of&, ad perpetuam Regnorum Anglise ec Wallise distinctionera
habendam, fecit fossam i)erlongam, quae ab austro juxta Bristolliam
sub roontibus Walliae jugiter se extendit in boream, fiuminaque
Sabrinse et Deae in eorucn pene primordiis transcindit, etc, usque ad
ostium iluminis Deae ultra Cestriam, juxta castrum de Flint, inter
coUem Carbonum et monasterium de Basingwerk se protendit.''*
Asser Menevensisf speaks thus : " Fuit in Mercia modemo tempore
. . . Rex nomine Offa, qui vallum magnum inter Britanniam et
Merciam, et mari usque ad mare facere imperavit."
It is to be recollected, before lAaking any deductions firom these
premises, that the question is not whether there existed an Oflfa's
Dyke or not, but whether it followed the banks of the Wye, as pre-
tended. According to these authors, it did not, and therefore the
earthwork on the Gloucestershire side, so denominated, is mis-
nomered.
First, It appears that the Wye, from its mouth at Chepstow, was
the boundary between England and Wales, both south and north, and
that Offa*s Dyke does not conform to any such lines, because it runs
too far to the east.
Secondly. The Saxon Chronicle shows that Oflfa commenced his
reign in the year 755, and died in 794. Asser Menevensis died in
909. He says that the Dyke was made ^^ modemo tempore ;^^ and
there being only a century between Offa and himself, -he could have
had no more difficulty in ascertaining its era than a person now living
would have in regard to the age of the Monument or St Paul's.
Thirdly. Asser says that the foundation of the Dyke had a specific
object, viz., separation of Wales from Mercia^ which object the
course of the Wye could not effect, because it turns short off to the
westward at Hereford, and would have thrown all the eastern
country from that place to Chester out of the kingdom of Mercia.
Fourthly. Asser says that the Dyke ran from sea to sea, ue.^ accord-
ing to Higden, from the mouth of the Severn to that of the Dee, or
from the Bristol to the Irish Channel. The latter also says that, com-
mencing on the south, it proceeded under the Welsh mountains to the
north. Now the line, from the Dee to Old Radnor, is distinctly
visible ; and, as the undulation on that line is very trifling, it will
appear, by applying a ruler to the map from Old Radnor to the
Bristol Channel, that the lost portion went from Old Radnor by
Abergavenny, and thence between Usk and Pontyix)ol, terminating at
* XV. Scriptorcs, 194. f •'^'^•i >57-
The DevUs Dyke^ Newmarket. 217
the sea between Newport and Landafil According to Higden's
account, and the maps also, Newport and Caldecot-hill, on the Mon-
mouthshire shores, face the mouth of the Avon, the ^^juxta
Bristoliam^* of the Chronicler; and the ^^ sub montibus^ going north-
ward, indicate the Monmouth and Brecon hills, by Abergavenny, etc
As to the ^tended Offa's Dyke, it consists seemingly of com-
munications between the Roman camps, etc, thrown up to check the
Silures. The trajectus at Aust is, undoubtedly, of Roman antiquity;
and there is a considerable camp at Maget, not far from the com-
mencement of the pretended Offa's Dyke at Beachley, alicu the Old
Passage; and there were stations at Lydney (Abone), Stanton
(B)estium), BoUatree (Ariconium), besides castella or other works
at Symonds'-yat, Bury hill, the DeviFs Pulpit, Stow-green, etc These
works must have guarded the trajectus in a most powerful force, and
almost invincibly have protected the passage of the Severn through
the numerous garrisons which could have been collected against an
enemy within a very few hours. [See Note 24.]
Vours, etc T. D. Fosbroke.
The Devil's Dyke, Newmarket.
[1845, /br/ /.,//. 25-29.]
" Nec struere auderent aciem nee credere campo,
Castra modo et tutos servarent aggere muros."
Ennd^ Lib. ix., lin. 42.
In the month of August, 1842, I had the opportunity of making
some notes, founded on p<;rsonad inspection, of the structure of that
very remarkable ancient military earthwork on Newmarket Heath, in
Cambridgeshire, popularly called the Devil's Dyke. As I am not
aware that any particular survey of this strong and very extensive
line of defence has been made, the report of my examination of it
may not be unacceptable.
I surveyed it at a spot called *' The Links," where it remains very
bold and perfect, about a quarter of a mile south of the turnpike-
gate, which stands where it is crossed by the high road from New-
market to London and Cambridge. I obtained in a rough way the
following admeasurements, which cannot, however, greatly err from
the truth.
This formidable vallum or rampart was commenced probably at its
southern extremity, where the Ordnance map of Cambridgeshire
marks the site of an ancient entrenched camp at Wood Ditton;
there are also some tumuli northward of that place in front of the
dyke, called traditionally "The Two Captains." Wood Ditton is
evidently a name associated with the Dyke, implying, the wood on
the ditch. The work is continued northward, across Newmarket
2i8 Anglo-Saxon Local Antiquities.
Heath, in a straight course of eight miles, to a stream near the village
of Reach, whose appellation, from the Saxon, raecan, indicates the
point to which the dyke reached or extended (see the Plan), so that
its right flank rested on streams and marsh lands, and its left on a
forest tract. The vallum being thrown up on the eastern side, shows
that the entrenchment was intended to secure the plain oi: New-
market against an enemy approaching from the westward, by a barrier
impregnable if properly defended. Such, indeed, it must have been,
for the escarpment of the rampart from the bottom of the ditch in
the most perfect places measures not less than 90 feet, and is
inclined at an angle of 70 degrees. On the top of the rampart is a
cursus or way, 18 feet in breadth, sufficiently wide for the passage of
cavalry or chariots. I have been told that some years since frag-
ments of the bronze furniture of chariot wheels were dug up near the
line of dyke, but I cannot verify the information. On the top of the
rampart I thought I could distinguish faint traces of a parapet of turf.
The whole was probably strengthened by a line of palisades or stakes.
It will be readily imagined how strong a defence this steep and
bristled wall of earth must then have formed. Even now, to ascend
its outward base from the bottom of the ditch is a feat of no small
difficulty and labour. The excavation for the work was made in the
solid stratum of chalk which lies on Newmarket plain next under the
vegetable mould ; the rampart was doubtless faced with green sods,
and nature has continued the surface of sward to this day.
About seven miles to the westward, crossing the high road, and
running nearly in a parallel line, is another ditch and rampart called
" The Fleam Dyke," which may be rendered, from the Saxon, the
dyke of flight or refuge (Fleam), as it probably was for the inhabitants
of East Anglia, being an obstacle against the assaults of the Mercians.
I have not yet had the opportunity of comparing the construction of
the Fleam Dyke with that of the Devil's Dyke ; it varies very little
in extent from the latter ; it is called also, from the length of its
course, the "Seven-Mile Dyke." On the inner or eastern side of
this work, near the high road, is a considerable tumulus, called in the
maps " Matlow Hill."
I am strongly disposed to think that the Devil's Dyke, and,
perhaps, other lines of entrenchment of a similar character in the
neighbourhood, were constructed by the Roman legions at an early
period in Britain. Camden enumerates three military dykes in Cam-
bridgeshire besides the Devil's Dyke, the strongest of them all. The
Roman forces, after obtaining their first footing in Britain, occupied
and colonize<i some eligible positions in Kent, Middlesex, and
Essex ; we find them at the time of the revolt of Boadicea at Cama-
lodunum (Colchester), Verulamium (St. Albans), and Londinium
(London). The Trinovantes and Iceni were perhaps the first British
districts which received the Roman yoke.
The Devil's Dyke, Newmarket. 219
It may here be remarked, that the covering a line of country by a
long extended vallum and ditch was a tactical practice with the
Romans. A few remarkable instances of securing a district in this
way against the incursions of a numerous and savage population may
here be quoted.
1. That line of entrenchment to check the devastation of the pro-
vinces of Gaul by the Helvetii which Caesar threw up, nineteen miles
in length, extending from Lake Leman to Mount Jura. '^ Interea ei
legione quam secum habebat, militibusque, qui ex provincia con-
venerant, a lacu Lemano, quern flumen Rhodanum influit ad montem
Juram qui fines Sequanorum ab Helvetiis dividit, millia passuum
decem et novem murum in altitudinem pedum sexdecim fossamque
perducit."*
2. That wall and rampart constructed by Lollius Urbicus, Governor
of Britain, in the time of Antoninus Pius, between the firths of Forth
and Clyde, extending from old Kirkpatrick, on the Clyde, to the
borders of the Forth, a distance of thirty miles ; a position previously
defended by a chain of forts designed by that great Roman strategist,
Agricola. This is the Grimma's (corruptly Graham's) or Wizard's
Dyke of after-ages, which thus assign its construction to diabolical
agency. The same superstitious belief attaches to many Roman
works, and designates them as " Devil's " banks, ways, and dykes ;
and this is one circumstance in favour of a Roman origin for the
Devil's Dyke at Newmarket.
3. The wall of Severus, in juxtaposition with the earlier work of
Hadrian, so well known as the Picts' Wall, extending from Wallsend,
near Newcastle-upon-Tyne, to Bowness, in Cumberland ; a course of
eighty miles.t
Wansdyke, in Wiltshire, has in all probability a Roman origin :
the name is from the British word Gwahan^ denoting a separation. {
Watt's Dyke, on the borders of Wales, was also of Roman construc-
tion, and is accompanied in places by Roman forts. Gwaith, from
which the name is corrupted, in an extended sense, according to
Richards, means a battle. The ** ditch of battle" would be very sig-
nificant for such a work.§ This was the prototype of Offa's Dyke,
Clctwdd Offa, and, indeed, in some places, is seen running parallel
* "Comment de Bello Galileo," lib. i., cap. viii.
t See ihe Rev. John Hodgson's Account of the Picts* Wall, " Hist. Northum-
berland ;" and that from an actual survey by the late Wm. Hutton, F.S.A., noticed
in Gentleman^ s Magatine for 1802, p. 633.
X It has been noticed in one of the reviews of topographical works which I have
from time to time contributed to these pa^es, that there are numerous dykes
running parallel with Wansdyke all ditched on the norih-eastern side, that is,
against the interior extent of the country, showing that they marked the gradual
onward acquisitions of foreign invaders.
§ See Richard's "Thesaurus," in voce Gwaith^ who quotes Taliessin for the
word in that acceptation.
2 20 Anglo-Saxon Local Antiquities.
with it. OfTa's Dyke extends from the £>ee to the Severn, near
Chepstow.* It was constructed as a territorial boundary against
the Welsh about the year 780, by Ofia, King of Mercia. Tradition
and history ascribe such a work to that monarch ; but it appears
quite incredible that it should have been executed in twelve days, as
Matthew Paris relates: ''Rex Otfa ad cautelam inter ipsos duos
exercitus coramuni assensu unum fossatum longura nimis et profun-
dum effodi jussit aggere terrestri versus Wallenses eminenter elevata
Quse omnia prout tempons brevitas exigebat ante natale Domini,
videlicet duodecim diebus licet brevissimis sunt completa.^'t As this
line comprised an extent of at least 100 miles, the soldiery employed
by Ofifa performed their work with a celerity with which modern
'* navigators," as delvers of tunnels, sewers, and railroads are some-
what whimsically termed, cannot compete. We must suppose, how-
ever, that they did little more in the twelve days than set out the
boundary line. Many notices of the remains of OfTa's Dyke occur
in the publications of tourists in Wales. They appear to be very
slight as compared with the Devil's Dyke. We are told that the
traveller would pass it near Mold, in Flintshire, unnoticed if not
pointed out; "all that remains is a small hollow which runs along
the cultivated fields, perhaps not above 18 inches deep in the centre,
nor more than 20 yards in breadth ."^
The first mention of the Devil's Dyke in history is found in the
Saxon Chronicle under the year 905, which tells us that the land of
the East Angles was laid waste between the Dyke and the Ouse, as
far northward as the fens. The Dyke was termed in the Norman
period St. Edmund's Dyke, because the jurisdiction of the Abbots of
Bury St Edmunds extended so far westward. The description of
the Dyke by Abbo Floriacensis, a writer of the tenth century who
had visited Britain, as quoted by Camden, is remarkable for its brief
accuracy. Speaking of East Anglia, he says that, on the west, '^ this
province joins to the rest of the island, and consequently there is a
• Warrington, vol. i., p. 163.
t Malt. Paris, in " Vii. Offa Secundi," edit. Watts, p. 17.
X Oflfa's Dyke extended from the river Wye along the counties of Hereford and
Radnor into that of Montgomery. It passed by Chirk Castle, crossed the Dee
near Plas Madoc, now forms part of the turnpike road to Wrexham, and terminates
at a farm near Treyddin Chapel, in the ]>arish of Mold. Watt's Dyke commences
in the parish of Oswestry, pursues its course near Wrexham, and terminates near
the Aboey of Basinwerk. The two dykes above mentioned run in a parallel
course for many miles, and are often confounded by topographers. OfTa's Dyke is
ditched towards the Welsh side ; on which side Watt's Dyke is ditched does not
appear from the authorities I have consulted. See Sir Richard Colt Hoare's
"Girald. Camb. Noies ;" "Cambrian Traveller's Companion," under Mold. See
also notices of OfTa's Dyke by the late Rev. Thos. D. Fosbroke, F.S.A., who
resided in its vicinity, in the Gentleman s Magazine^ vol. cii. ii. 501 ; vol. iiL,
New Series, p. 490. \Ante, pp. 206-217 ]
Tlie Devil's Dyke^ Newmarket. 221
passage; but to prevent the enemies' frequent incursions it is de-
fended by a bank like a lofty wall and a ditch."* A reference to the
sketch and section accompanying these notes will at a glance shovir
the appropriate character of Abbo's words.
The day is not now, perhaps, very remote when our national
antiquities of the earlier period will be submitted to more careful in-
vestigation than they have hitherto received. These are matters
which belong to the chartered Society of Antiquaries and the Society
of Archaeologists newly established, as a body, and to every one of
their members in their individual sphere.
A much more careful survey than I have had leisure to make of
the Devil's Dyke throughout its course, and exploration of the
adjacent lows or barrows, would probably develop very conclusive
indications of its origin. In such an examination similar works adja-
cent would not be altogether neglected, and an opinion might be
formed whether they were mere outworks of the Master Dyke.
An instance of the adoption, in modern times, of a long-extended
defence by a ditch and rampart is to be found in the military canal
formed during the late war to cover the marsh-lands of Kent and
Sussex between Sandgate and Rye.t
I have hitherto omitted to mention that I observed some fragments
of Roman tile scattered near the Dyke, and that it appears to have
been cut through in forming the present high road from Newmarket
to Cambridge. That is some evidence for its very high antiquity.
I recommend the explorator of this interesting fortification not to fail
to visit the Dyke at the Links, to descend into the foss, and obtain
the view I have given of its course, ascending the rising grounds
southward in the direction of Wood Dittoa It will then be allowed
I have drawn no exaggerated picture of the work. On the racecourse
at Newmarket its character is not so bold; it has been broken through
in order to form apertures for the running horses at places to which
the general name of gates (1.^., gaps) has been given, and the rains of
centuries have had more effect in reducing its features. If opportu-
nity should occur, I shall be happy at some future period to survey
the entrenchment marked in the Ordnance map at Wood Ditton, and
to trace the Dyke to its termination at Reach.
* Camd. '* Britannia " by Gibson, p. 407.
f ^ Immediately under Shorn ClifT, and within half a mile from Sandgate, com-
mences the new military canal which has recently been cut, to impede the progress
of an enemy, in the event of a landing being effected on this shore. It extends
from this parish (Sandgate) in nearly a straight direction along the coast till it
passes Hytne, -when it crosses the Romney Road, and, following the course of the
hills which skirt the extensive flat forming Romney and Wallend marshes, terminates
at Cliffe End, in Sussex, a distance of about 23 miles. Its breadth is about
30 yards, and its depth six, with a raised bank to shelter the soldiery." — Brayley's
"Kent,'* p. 1 1 14.
22 2 Anglo-Saxon Local Antiquities.
The question in the meanwhile still lies open, whether the Devil's
Dyke is a Roman or a Saxon work, and any information tending to
settle that point, conveyed through the medium of the Gentlemaiis
Magazine^ will be received with satisfaction. The generations of
mankind rapidly pass away, but the monuments which their labour has
erected on the surface of the earth remain. Tradition generally
affords an uncertain or exaggerated view of their origin, if remote, or,
at a loss for its traces, proclaims them the work of demons. Written
records are sometimes scanty, or altogether wanting. Documents
and relics are often worthless, if not submitted to critical analysis.
In many cases the aid of actual survey and delineation, and of the
mattock and spade, must be resorted to.
Coins, military weapons (observing whether these be of brass or
iron), relics of domestic utensils or sepulchral rites, may then be
sought for, and, as these are evidences generally capable of compara-
tive and chronological classification, they become of importance, and
in the hands of a judicious collector are no longer rubbish unfit to
occupy that most valuable of commodities entrusted to our husbandry
— time. [See Note 25.I
^ ^ A.J.K.
Wareham : the Age of its Walls.*
[1865, Pari II., pp. 43X-43S-]
In the historical associations of the past, no place in Dorset pos-
sesses so great a claim on our interest as Wareham. Singular in
position, as well as remarkable for its vestiges of a remote age —
existing, if not in all the greatness, at least in all the greenness of
their original strength, and thus presenting such an example df a
walled town as to be without its parallel in this kingdom — the man
of a thinking and investigating mind cannot fail to look on these
extraordinary earthworks with astonishment, and not content there-
with, will seek to ascertain by what people they were raised.
In his visions of the long past^ Celt, Roman, Saxon, and Dane will
pass in review before him ; and it is more than probable that if he
takes but a cursory view of the vallations, an erroneous assignment
of their constructors will follow. This quiet little town (with an at-
mosphere of dulness so overpowering as to be oppressive) is situated
at the confluence of the Pydel and Frome, rivers which lave its north
and south sides, as their slow and devious course is pursued through
marshes and mud-banks ere they unite with the sea. The general
aspect of the neighbourhood offers a pretty good criterion of what
must have been its physical condition at the time to which we shall
* A paper offered to the Archaeological Institute at Dorchester, bat not read
"for want of time."
Wareham: the Age of its Walls. 223
have occasion to refer, a period when the sestuary being less silted
up, the flats now represented by meadows and marshes were subjected
to the tidal influence of its waters, whilst by a deeper channel a
harbour was atuined, in which the ships of both Saxon and Dane,
as friend or foe, rode securely at anchor beneath the walls of the town.
The Frome, as the most important of the two rivers, early gave its
name to the place, and as such is brought before us for the first time
in history, at the end of the seventh or beginning of the eighth cen-
tury; a religious house having been established here, at "the spot
known as Fro-mouth, by Aldhelm, Bishop of Sherborne/' This name,
so early recorded (and so descriptive of its position), in nowise recog-
nises the site of the supposititious British town of Durngueis, which,
had It existed here, that appellation, it might be thought, would have
been adopted or modified by the Saxon historian.
At a later period we find this British name occurring in the Saxon
annals, not as designating a town, but a tract of country : " The
district which is called in British 'Durngueis,' in Saxon 'Thornsasta,'"
clearly referring to the country around, and not to a particular place.
Commencing our investigation of these ancient " Walls of Ware-
ham '' at the river-side on the south-west, we ascend the acclivity by
a deep fosse, which brings us near to the west port or gateway, and
where this important fosse terminates, the defence being then taken
up by a very strong and lofty rampart, having its sides and apex well
and carefully formed.
The whole length of the earthwork forming the western side of this
walled town is rectilinear in its course, until it makes a sudden turn
to the right, taking up the protection of the north side, whilst at the
foot of the rampart at this angle a platform and low breastwork is
carried round for a short distance.
On keeping this line of the wall, a small water-gate is passed, which
gives access to the river below ; the gateway is formed by a slight re-
cession opening inward on either hand of the vallum.
The rampart is then continued in a tolerably direct line for the
whole of the north side, but not with that marked degree of regularity
so observable on the west, a deviation which seems to be explained
by the circumstance of the river flowing at its base for the whole of
its length, and thus in a measure influencing the direction of the
wall.
A similar arrangement of platform and breastwork to that already
noticed is to be seen where the vallum completing the defence on the
north by the river Pydel turns at an acute angle, and is carried in a
direct line southwards towards the Frome, constituting the eastern
wall of the town, which is, as it were, parallel with that on the west
side, and has also a gateway known as the East Port, precisely oppo-
site to the West Port
The country eastward of Wareham must have been very wet and
224 Anglo-Saxon Local Antiquities.
marshy, and therefore difficult of access in bygone days — facts which
sufficiently account for the weakness of the eastern rampart^ as com-
pared with that of the western ; still, it is by no means a contemptible
line of defence.
On Btrstall ^*'by East Wall") Farm there are traces of a low
parallel agger m advance of this east wall, which is itself carried a
moderate distance beyond its east port, but finally becomes lost before
the river is attained The inference most reasonable is, that the
intervening space (now meadow) was at that time morass.
It will be seen by a due attention to these particulars that the plan
of these earthworks is strictly rectangular, and analogous to the system
generally used (seldom departed from) by the Romans ; whilst the
quadrilateral form, constructive features, and general finish of the
whole differ so materially from any of our known Celtic works, that
anyone at all acquainted with the earthworks of this latter class will
at once see that they cannot be assigned to them.
For myself, I am inclined to regard these imp>ortant entrenchments
as the work of a later period, thrown up in those troublous times of
our history when, after a long unrest, this county had been brought
under Saxon rule, yet not delivered from the cruel ravages of the
Danish freebooters.
The position of Fro-mouth at that wild epoch, in its easy access
from the sea, as well as for the shelter it could afford to their (so
termed) ships, must have largely contributed to its growth, and we
thus early hear of it as a town of importance with the West Saxons ;
and few are the places which are brought more frequendy or promi-
nently before us in their annals than Wareham.
This importance, attested by its religious establishments and royal
mints, conjoined to its facility of approach, operated as a lure to the
Danes, who, heedless of its castle, then its only place of defence,
were continually infesting and often occupying the town.
One instance alone, extracted from the Saxon annals, will suffi-
ciently illustrate the fact, especially as it refers in a renoarkable manner
to the very subject in question :
'^A. 876. — The army of the Pagans (£^., Danes), leaving Granta-
bridge by night, entered a castle called Wareham, where there is a
monasterium of holy virgins, between the two rivers the Frome and
Trent (x^), in the district which is called in the British Dumgueis,
but in Saxon Thomsaeta, placed in a most secure situation, except that
it was exposed to danger on the western side, from the nature of the
ground.**
The words of the chronicler are very plain, and singularly explicit,
the evidences after the lapse of well-nigh a thousand years are still
as apparent as ever, for lying between two rivers, and protected by a
* Asser's *< Life of Alfred," sub atnto.
Wareham : the Age of its Walls. 225
marsh on its eastern side, the town was '^ in a most secure situation/'
as regarded those points ; whilst the character of the country in the
opposite direction has, during the lapse of centuries, undergone no
material change, still a fine dry level soil, high above any river in-
fluence, '* hence the danger on the western side from the nature of
the ground."
This expression, *' the nature of the ground," demonstrates alike
the cause of security as well as of danger ; whilst, had the present
western lofty rampart been at that time in existence, then there might
have been a plea, still a very weak one, in support of opinions which
I believe have been advanced in favour of the Celtic origin of these
earthworks, or, as now called, " walls ;" but even then they would
have been remarkable, and open to doubt from their anomalous
character, so totally at variance with any recognised Celtic earthwork
in the territory of the Durotriges. Nevertheless, I think it very
probable that the high ground within the ^* walls " might have been
occupied by a tribe of Britons, whose sepulchral mounds are to be
seen scattered over the surrounding wilds, but at a time antecedent to
the construction of these bulwarks.
Hutchins himself was inclined to attribute the erection of these
entrenchments to the Danes, and that at a time to which our extract
refers. At first sight this seems a very natural conclusion ; but could
he have sufficiently estimated the extent and magnitude of the under-
taking, or reflected that on the Danish army leaving Grantabridge,
one division marched into Northumbria, the other only coming to
Wareham, whilst their occupation of Wareham was too limited in
point of time for such a great work, and from whence, after breaking
faith with Alfred, "they turned off"" into Devonshire?
Admitting all that may be advanced in favour of Hutchins' theory,
I am quite disposed to regard " the walls of Wareham " as a Saxon
work, and of a somewhat (yet little) later period than that assigned
by him, probably at the latter end of Alfred's reign, at a time when
the country was restored to comparative tranquillity, but was still
smarting from the cruel inflictions it had received from the
Danes.
The occupation of the castle, noticed by the Saxon historian, is a
sufficient proof that it was a much earlier work than that of the ram-
parts around the town ; whilst it will be well for us to bear in mind
that the castles of that early period were seldom more than hillocks,
or mounds of earth.
There can be no reason for supposing that the castle at Wareham
formed an exception to the general rule, but that like them as well,
it was surrounded by entrenchments, within whose enclosure the
Danes found admission. Its site within the fosse at the south-west
corner adjoining the Frome is still indicated by a mound, or huge
VOL. VI. 15
226 Anglo-Saxon Local Antiquities.
excrescence of earth. Like many others,* it subsequently becanae
occupied by a Norman structure, the foundations of which were
discovered a few years since by the present proprietor when excava-
ting for building.
With the exception of a mound or keep for their so-called castles,
the castrametation of the Saxons was more general than specific, for,
confined to no particular system of their own, they were open to
adopt the principles of such military works as were before them, and
best accorded to their purpose.
This will be seen especially manifested in " the walls of Wareham,"
and which seem clearly to have had their prototype in the not far
distant castrum of Durnovaria, where was the model of a fortress,
which they, by previous occupation, must have had both ample
means and leisure for studying ; and that they did this effectually is
obvious, as its plan is carried out in perfect detail, not only in the
great work before us, but in the town as well.
Such are the reasons which have led me to assign *' the walls of
Wareham " to the Saxon period, as indicated in my illustrated '' Map
of Dorsetshire : its Celtic, Roman, Saxon, and Danish Vestiges.*'
I have felt myself called on to make these explanations, as I
believe my classification differs somewhat from opinions that have
been elsewhere expressed.
Furthermore, I seize the present opportunity to refer to that
fallacious theory which fixed the Moriconium of *' the chirographer of
Ravenna " at Wareham, and connected it by a presumed Roman
road with their station at Durnovaria.
A careful examination of the neighbourhood fails to disclose any
such road, although there are traces of a British trackway which, pro-
ceeding from this town, ultimately becomes lost or confused with a
dyke, which in many places is to be seen as a marked object, pursuing
a very irregular course westward through " the district of Dumgueis."
Baxter, followed by Stukeley, was no doubt induced to place
Moriconium at Wareham, as observing the order of its sequence to
Clavinium. In all probability, both visited the town itself. If this
was the case, they could not fail to have been deeply impressed with
the Roman character, not merely of its ramparts, but with the internal
arrangement of its streets as well, for so remarkable and striking is
the analogy that the most experienced would be liable to be deceived
by a casual visit
That they were misled in fixing on Wareham as the site of Mori-
conium is borne out by the conclusive fact, that (with the exception
* These castles — as for example those of Carisbrooke, Hastings, and others—
often occupied the sites of earlier strongholds ; whilst the position of that at
Wareham, on comparatively hiffh ground over the Froroe, seems to have been one
that would have been selected by the Britons, after whom it became occupied
alternately by Saxon and Dane, prior to its adoption by the Normans.
Wareham: the Age of its Walls. 227
of a first-brass coin of Antoninus Pius) not a Roman vestige of any
kind has ever been discovered, in or near the town, within the
memory of its oldest inhabitant ; while Jordan Hill in Preston, the
site of Clavinium, has been found to abound with these remains,
including public edifices, tesselated pavements, eta
Ample reasons have been adduced for differing from Baxter and
Stukeley ; whilst we may rest assured that, had they been aware of
the facts now stated with reference to Wareham, as well as of the
existence of a Vicinal Way, from the Via Iceniana to the shores of
the Poole estuary at Ham worthy, they would have been spared the
error.
This Vicinal Way, traceable for its entire course, is in many places
very prominent, and could not have been objectless; whilst its
termination safely indicates a position of consideration, such as may
well be occupied by Moriconium — an entrepdt vfhtit^ by means of the
Via, the stations of the interior kept up a communication with the
sea.
This appropriation is strengthened by so many confirmatory evi-
dences as may lead us to consider it to be established ; yet as this
arrangement interferes with Bolvelaunium, which the same antiquaries
place at Poole, I have assigned it to Christ Church, for it cannot be
supposed that two stations would be in such close proximity.
The latter place seems the more reasonable site, as situated at the
confluence of the Avon and Stour, where Roman remains have been
found, and where the former river constituted the eastern border of
the territory of the Durotriges. [See Note 26.]
Charles Warne, F.S.A.
King Alfred and the River Lea.
[1866, PartL^p, 697.]
Some of your readers may occasionally make a pilgrimage by the
Great Eastern Railway to Waltham Abbey. If so, they may be glad
to know from a resident that the various streams of the River Lea
which they cross between the railway station and the town still flow
just as they did in King Alfred's time. I allude especially to the
first stream that you cross in coming from the railway station, and the
mill-streams in the town, and not to the great navigation stream at the
entrance of the to^nrn, which of course is of modern date. But very
few people indeed are aware that King Alfred's great work in these
parts was the raising of the banks of the three streams which the
Great Eastern Railway crosses between Mile End and Stratford, and
that the embankment^ now in good order after nearly ten centuries,
were King Alfred's works, raised by him for the sake of carrying off
the waters from the valley of the Lea. He finished the embankment
of the River Thames at Blackwall, and thereby laid the Danish fleet,
which had sailed up to Ware in Hertfordshire, high and dry. He
15—2
228 Anglo-Saxon Local Antiquities.
afterwards raised the banks of these three streams, and placed them,
and all that district, under the charge of commissioners, who are
reappointed every ten years, with additions, by the Lord Chancellor,
of a certain number of independent gentlemen, selected from the
county of Essex, who have great powers, and who, without fee or
reward, have exercised these powers, and still exercise them, to the
great advantage of the neighb<nirhood and the public in general
I am, etc., P. G.
P.S. The trustees of the River Lea Navigation, which is a very old
trust, are selected from the Counties of Middlesex, Essex, and Hert-
fordshire. They give gratuitous services.
Battle of Brunnan.
[1822, PartL^pp, 3-6.]
In the early history of our country there is perhaps no one to
whom we are more indebted than Mr. Sharon Turner, who, in com-
piling his "History of the Anglo-Saxons," has explored so many
before-hidden treasures, as to produce an abundant detail of events
that, but for him, might probably have still remained unheeded and
unknown; and although the transactions of that eventful portion of our
history are yet so scanty as to hurry us over a va$t period of time,
through a quick succession of barbarous and revolting incidents, yet
the events of those times are nevertheless worthy of our most serious
consideration : in them, indeed, we see as it were the* germ of our
national civilization, struggling against the rude shocks of ignorance
and barbarism, and yet increasing to a growing shoot ; then assisted
and nurtured by the introduction of the mild truths of Christianity,
we see that shoot overpowering all barbarian obstacles, and expand-
ing itself into a large and spreading tree, under whose full-grown and
shady branches we now enjoy the sweet repose of historic contempla-
tion, counting the many blessings of the present, and contrasting
them with the miseries of the past.
Shocking as the detail may be, yet the violent usurpations of power,
the murders and desolations committed with fire and sword, and the
bloody contests that were continually taking place between one or
other of the many sovereigns of our Saxon ancestors, may truly be
considered as having laid the foundation of our present national
independence ; and each greater contest that is recorded becomes
doubly interesting to the present generation, by having some accom-
panying proofs of its locality.
Of the many invasions of Great Britain by the Northern barbarians,
none appear to have taken place within the county of Lincoln, until
after the conquest of Northumbria by Ivan, when (temp. 871) the
Danes landed at Humberstone (on the Lincolnshire coast), and com-
Battle of Brunnan. 229
menced that too successful irruption, which, proceeding through the
county southward, destroyed the monasteries of Bardney and Croy-
land, and desolated the whole country ; and being assisted also in
its progress by the petty jealousies of the Anglo-Saxon sovereigns^
triumphed over each kingdom, in detail, and, in the end, made the
great Alfred himself a temporary fugitive in his own dominions.
From the period of this devastation, and during the subsequent
struggles of Alfred in regaining his kingdom, and to the time of his
final triumph over the Danes, none of the important events recorded
give any local interest to the north of Lincolnshire, nor is any-
thing particularly stated, so as to place any military operations of
consequence immediately on the banks of the River Humber, until
the reign of Athelstan, when the great battle of Brunnenburgh was
fought.
Without giving you the full detail of Mr. Turner's history of the
events which occasioned this great contest, it may be useful to pre-
mise that almost upon every accession of our elective Anglo-Saxon
monarchs to the sovereignty of their respective States, it was invari-
ably necessary that they should have recourse to arms, in order to
support or confirm their authority ; and the submission that was
made by the sovereigns of Northumbria, Scotland, and Wales, to
Edward, was but ill attended to, when the sceptre was conceded to
his successor Athelstan ; the consequence of which was, that Athel-
stan soon added Northumbria to his dominions, and ravaged Scotland
and Wales. His successes, however, were not long to be enjoyed
unmolested ; for one of the most powerful confederacies that ever
had been formed sprung up against him, and threatened his whole
kingdom with present annihilation.
Anlaf (who had been driven from Northumbria), assisted by Constan-
tine. King of Scotland, several of the Welsh princes, and the Anglo-
Danes, north of the Humber, and also augmented by fleets of warriors
from Norway and the Baltic, formed ** an attack of such magnitude,
it seemed a certain calculation that the single force of Athelstan must
be overthrown." He so managed, however, as to gain time, and be
prepared to meet the storm ; and finally, in the battle of Brunnen-
burgh, he completely defeated their combinations.
In this battle the contending armies were so numerous, the circum-
stances so particular, the slaughter so great, and the consequences
so important, that it may not inaptly be compared to the modern
Waterloo.
Every reader of Mr. Turner's History will no doubt be delighted
with his description of the particular events of this most important
period, and especially with his representation of this battle ; and it
only leaves a regret that the site of such events should not have been
identified with his description.
In my edition (being the first) of Mr. Turner's History, with
230 Anglo-Saxon Local Antiquities.
reference to the battle of Brunnansburgh, he subjoins the following
note:
*' It is singular that the position of this famous battle b not ascer-
tained : the Saxon Song says it was at Brunnanburh. Ethelwerd, a
contemporary, names the place Brunnandune ; Simeon of Durham,
Weondune or Ethunnanwerch, or Brunnan byrgc; Malmsbury, Bruns-
ford. Ingulf says, Bnmford in Northumbria. These of course imply
the same place. But where is it ? Camden thought it was at Ford
near Bromeridge in Northumberland. Gibson mentions^ that in
Cheshire there is a place called Brunburgh. I observe that the
Yillare mentions a Brunton in Northumberland."
Accidentally looking into Macpherson's "Geographical Illustra-
tions of Scottish History/' with reference to this same event, and
under the title " Brunnanburgh,'* I found the following observation :
''AH authors, except Ingulf, give reason to believe that this famous
battle was fought to the southward of the Humber. The invading
allies were on their progress from that river when they were met by
Athelstan ; and it is probable that Brunne, now Bourne, in the south
part of Lincolnshire, near which is Witham (perhaps formerly Weon-
dune), may have been the place."
To which is added the following note :
" Everyone acquainted with the old English knows that Burn and
Brun are the same, and the addition of Burgh might be dropped
from it, as it has been from many others ; €.g,y Lundenburgh or
Lundenbyrig, now London."
Coupling these queries and observations with my own, I have
ventured to presume that I am able to determine this hitherto doubt-
ful point, and to lay down the exact position where the battle was
fought; in order to which, however, I must again refer to Mr.
Turner's History for information, *• that Anlaf commenced the war-
fare by entering the Humber with a fleet of 615 ships;" and also^
'* that he soon overpowered the forces which Athelstan had posted in
Northumbria." It does not appear how £ar Anlafs force was per-
sonally engaged in producing these advantages north of the Humber;
and from the silence of our historians, we may infer that the magni-
tude of the invading force was such as made it necessary that Athel-
stan should withdraw his troops from the north and concentrate them
in a more southerly position. Although the ships of the period we
are now speaking of were not vessels of large burthen, yet, from the
number which entered the Humber, it has been inferred that Anlaf
had with him an army of 30,000 men at the least ; and in order to
engage and divide Athetstan's attention from the north, he would
naturally, and with as little delay as possible, debark and take up a
position on the south bank of the River Humber.
My conjecture is that Anlaf landed the main body of his army at
Barrow, taking up a position at the head of the creek or haven there.
Battle of Brunnan. 27, r
about three-quarters of a mile distant from the river, where he threw
up entrenchments, and that he in a similar way posted his allies at
Barton ; which conjecture is founded on the natural positions these
two places present for debarkation, both having a creek or haven
running inland, and capacious enough together to harbour the whole
or most of Anlafs ships ; and also having positions called the Castles
or Castle Dikes to this day at Barrow ; indeed, the remains of what
I consider to be Anlafs intrenched camp are yet undemolished, and
comprise an area of about eight acres of land, now called the Castles.
At Barton we have only two positions, known by the name of the
Castle Dikes, one at a little distance from the head of the present
haven, on the west of the town ; and the other in advance on the
east ; the one commanding the ancient road westward from Barton
to Ferriby ; the other, the two roads eastward and southward, viz.,
the road to Barrow on the east, and the road from Barton in a south-
easterly direction to Grimsby and Louth, called the Old Street ; and
which three roads were most probably the only public roads then
existing.
Drawing a line from the mouth of Barton Haven to that of Barrow,
along the river bank, and which in extent may be calculated at about
two miles ; and making this line the base of a triangle, the apex of
the angle at a point perpendicular to the centre of the base, and at
the distance of four niiles, will give the advanced position I have laid
down for Athelstan's forces, this point being within the manor or
lordship, and a little in advance of the present hamlet or vill of
Burnham, anciently called Brunnum or Brunnen.
The lordship of Burnham is bounded on the north by the lordships
of Barrow and Barton, and on the south by the lordship of Wootton,
and I have no doubt but that the Brunnendune and Weondune of
the Saxon Chronicles are the same as the present Burnham Dale
and Wootton Dale, a little way in the rear, or south of the present
hamlet of Burnham.
The manor and estate of Burnham is within the parish of Thornton
Curtis, and was formerly belonging to the Abbey of Thornton.
In Bishop Tanner's "Notitia," amongst other references to the
grants of property to Thornton Abbey, you will find this manor
amongst others (in Cart. 29 Edw. I. n. 26), noted as the manor of
Brunnum ; and upon a late inspection of the documents relating to
these estates, I found a sheep pasture, part of the Burnham property,
described as being known by the name of the Black Nold, evidently
a corruption from Black Knoll, or the Bloody Hill as we may term
it ; and no doubt, having reference to the scite of the bloody contest
we have now in contemplation. This knoll is also in our day pointed
out by the name (Black Mould) given to the extreme northern point,
or front of the position I have laid down for Aihelstan, and which is
within the lordship of Barrow.
232 Anglo-Saxon Local Anfiguilus.
From the account given of the engagement, it appears that the
confederates were pursued down the hill, quite into the plains, so that
they must hare been driven quite out of the lordship of Burnham into
the adjoining lordship of Barrow, where the hill terminates with a
deep narrow valley. On the opposite hill, within the lordship of
Barton, a thorn-tree some years ago stood (denominated St, Trun-
niofCs Tree) ; and as a spring of water on the west of the town of
Barton, adjoining the Castle Dikes (where I suppose part of Anlafs
forces were stationed), bears the like name of St Trunnian's, I could
in fancy connect this with some sainted person among the con-
federates who may have lost his life in this engagement ; for we know
that bishops as well as Lord Chancellors, in those days, took a
prominent part in the military services of their country, and are
remarkably particularized in this battle.
The front of the encampment of Anlaf was to a considerable
distance defended by an impassable bog, and having the haven on its
right flank. It was well defended on all sides against surprise,
although, according to modem tactics, it would be commanded by
the rising grounds in front as well as on the left of the latter
eminence ; however, Anlaf had no doubt some troops posted, as this
part of the lordship of Barrow to this day bears the name of the Hann
Field.
Dr. Stukeley visited this encampment ; and, in his '* Itinerarium,"
makes the following observations on it :
" At Barrow we were surprised with a castle, as the inhabitants call
it, upon the salt marshes. Upon view of the works, I wondered not
that they say it was made by Humber, when he invaded Britain, in
the time of the Trojan Brutus ; for it is wholly dissonant from any
thing I had seen before ; but after sufficient examen, I fomul it to be
a temple of the old Britons, therefore to be referred to on another
occasion."
If we substitute the name of Anlaf for that of Humber, we shall find
that the information which Dr. Stukeley received from the inhabitants
in his time strongly corroborates my conjectures.
The whole circle of the mounds or banks of this intrenchment were
all some fifty years ago, and some of them still remaining, of a con-
siderable height ; and the circular mount in the centre is of still higher
elevation than any of the mounds, and I presume may now be 20 feet
above the general level of the adjoining marshes, and commands a
view over all the encampment and the immediate neighbourhood. The
top of this mount forms rather a hollow circle, the diameter of which
measures about 70 yards ; the banks were all formerly further defended
by deep ditches, which are now nearly filled up ; sJthough in one of
the mounds there appear a few chalk stones, there is no appearance
of any buildings having been erected within any part of the area.
The position of this intrenchment is at the extremity of the level called
Battle of Brunnan. 233
the Marshes, from the Humber, and on the only part that is above
the ordinary level of the marsh in Barrow. Upon an occasion, some
years ago, of the tide of the Humber breaking down the banks, and
overflowing the adjoining level, the cattle in the marshes saved them-
selves by flying to this spot A curious circumstance was told me by
an old resident near the spot, who happened to join my friend and
me, while we were measuring the area of this encampment, which
deserves to be noted. About sixty or seventy years ago, he said, a
stranger who was from Denmark came to visit these castles, and em-
ployed an old labourer of Barrow for several days, to dig in a particular
part of the iutrenchment until he found what he came to look for,
when, after handsomely remunerating the labourer for his trouble, he
took his departure. I was sorry to find that the old man so em-
ployed had only been dead about five years, and regretted that he
was not alive to give me the particulars ; the story, however, is well
in the recollection of most of the farmers in the place. It was added,
that the stranger, before he came to Barrow, had been for a month or
two in search of his object at the hilltop at Alkborough, adjoining the
conflux of the Trent and Ouse.
The allotment of land in which the greatest part of the area of this
intrenchment is placed, is now the property of William Grabum, Esq.,
who has had it in contemplation to build an appropriate cottage on
the top of the centre mound, which, when erected, will command a
pleasing elevatioa
A traveller taking the road from Barton to Castor, by way of Burn-
ham, will have the eminence on which the Battle of Brunnum was
fought immediately on his right hand, on his entering the lordship of
Burnham \ and a traveller on the road from Barton to Lincoln will
observe this same fine eminence at about half a mile distance on hb
left, when he leaves the lordship of Bartoa
At the period of Anlafs invasion, I should presume that this part
of Lincolnshire roust have been very thinly inhabited; and con-
sidering that the ancient word Borrough, often pronounced Barrow,
signifies a fortified place or defence, I could wish to ask some of your
better informed correspondents whether these positions of Anlaf may
not have had some influence on the names of the two towns Barrow
and Barton? Bishop Tanner, in his notes with reference to the
Monastery of St. Chad at Barrow, mentions that Bede calls it Berwe,
ue. at the Wood, [See Note 27.]
W. S. Hesleden.
234 Anglo-Savon Local Antiquities.
An Attempt to discover the Locality of the Ancient
Anglo-Saxon See of Sidnacester.
[1864, PML,pp. 7i3-7a4.1
"To be unaociuainted with the events which have taken place before we were
born, ii to continue to live in childish ignorance," says the Roman orator Cicero ;
*' for where is the value of human life, unless memory enables us to compare the
events of our own times with those of ages long gone by ?**
History informs us that after the death of Oswy, King of North-
umbria, Egfrid his son wrested the province of Lindsey from Wulphere,
King of Mercia ; and that, a.d. 678, he placed Eadhed over the
Church of Lindsey, and designated him Bishop of Cidnacester.
Florence of Worcester, whose chronicle ends a.d. 1118, says that
*' Eadhed was appointed bishop of the province of the Lindisfarri [or
people of Lindsey], and that now for the first time that province has
a ruler."
The Saxon Chronicle remarks, under the year a.d. 678, *' That
Eadhed was consecrated bishop over the men of Lindsey; he was
the first of the bishops of Lindsey.'' Inland adds, '* Whose cathedra
was in the city which is called Sidnacester."
In A.D. 679 the province of Lindsey was reconquered by the
Mercians, who expelled Eadhed, and put in his place the following
bishops :
A.D. A.D.
2. iCIthelwin - - - - 679 6. Eadulf I. • - - ob. 765
3. Eadgar 701 7. Ceolulf - - - - ob. 787
4. Cynebert - • - - 731 8. Eadulf II. - - • - 803
5. Alwigh 750 9. Burthrede - - . - 850
The cathedral probably destroyed by the Danes A.D. 870.*
The succession of the bishops of Sidnacester was now interrupted
by the Danish occupants of the province of Lindsey, until their ex-
pulsion by Edward the Elder, a.d. 941. Soon after this period
Sidnacester was conferred on Leofwine, Bishop of Dorchester, and
thence allotted to that see.t
As there is no such place at the present time, the question naturally
arises, where was the cathedral of Sidnacester situated ? It was un-
doubtedly the head of one of the five parochia into which the king-
dom of Mercia was distributed, the other four being Leicester,
Worcester, Lichfield, and Dorchester.
Matthew of Westminster, who wrote a.d. 1377, when speaking of
the two bishops of Sidnacester, Ceolfus and Eadulphus, remarks,
" We do not know where these bishops had their cathedral seat."
Wharton also, in his '^Anglia Sacra," asserts that "hitherto its
situation has not been known." And Gibson, in the *' Britannia,"
* Vide "Chron. Angl. Petrobnrg.," sub anno A.D. 870.
f Kf^ "Monast. Anglicanum."
The Ancient An^lo-Saxon See of Sidnacester. 235
confirms this statement by saying, **This [Sidnacester] is now so
entirely gone, that neither ruins nor name are now in being." Hence,
says the historian of the county of Lincoln, "most antiquarians have
adopted a general mode of description.'' One says it was near
Gainsborough ; another, in Lincolnshire, near the Humber ; a third,
in this part of the county ; and others are entirely silent on the sub-
ject Mr. Johnson thought it was Hatfield, in the county of York ;
Dr. Stukeley, at Newark-upon-Trent Mr. Dickinson, in his history
of that town, has adopted it, and endeavoured to establish it by
additional but unsatisfactory arguments, as will be hereafter demon-
strated. Horsley, in his '* Britannia Romana," after having fixed the
Roman station Causennae of Antoninus's Itinerary at Ancaster,
supposes that place to have been Sidnacester. Mr. Stark, in his
history of the bishopric of Lincoln, endeavours to prove that "$tow,"
or, as Huntingdon calls it, " S. Mariae Locus sub promontorio Lin-
colniss,'' was the site of Sidnacester.
It will hereafter be shown that none of these places are entitled to
the honour of having been the locality of this ancient city.
Writers of bygone days describe with sufficient accuracy the boun-
daries of Lindsey to discover that they enclose the tract of country
which still retains the name of Lindsey. Bede says, " The province
of Lindsey is the first on the south side of the river Humber, stretch-
ing out as far as the sea." Matthew of Westminster says that *' Lindsey
lies between Lincoln and the river Humber;" and further, *'The
Province of Lindsey, which is to the south of the river Humber."
Higden, whose " Poly-chronicon " comes down to a.d. 1363, states
that " the province of Lindisfarr is the same as Lindsey, and that it
lies towards the east of Lincoln, which is the head of it." Here is
given the northern boundary, the Humber ; and its southern or south-
western boundary, the city of Lincoln. This will invalidate the claims
of Hatfield, Newark, and Ancaster, because not one of these places
is in the province of Lindsey.
The observations of Dr. Stukeley, quoted by Mr. Dickinson, that
" the divisions of counties were not made till the time of Alfred ;
that the wapentake of Newark was forcibly taken out of Lincoln-
shire ; and that the river Trent was the ancient, because it was the
natural, boundary between that county and Nottinghamshire," — ^are
assertions which, if granted, would prove nothing in favour of his
opinion ; because the position on which his argument rests, that that
provincia Lindisse was taken out by our ancestors in so large a sense
that 'Mt meant all Lincolnshire, of which Lindum was the capital
city," is unfounded, as appears by the definition of its boundary
before quoted from Bede and other authors.
Bishop Gibson, in the ''Britannia," when speaking of the neighbour-
hood of Gainsborough, says : " In this part of the county stood
formerly the city of Sidnacester, once the seat of the bishops of
236 Anglo-Saxon Local Antiquities.
those parts, who were called Bishops of Lindisfarri ;** and then he
adds, ^ There is another place that may probably enough be thought
of, namely, the hills above Lea and Gainsborough, where have been
taken up many pieces of Roman urns, and many coins of those
emperors. The Castle-hills," continues the Bishop, " eastward from
Gainsborough Church, are surrounded with entrenchments, contain-
ing (as is said) more than one hundred acres. **
In the reign of King Stephen the hills above Gainsborough were
called '* Wetheberg," from the circumstance, I presume, of their form-
ing a part of the ridge of high ground upon which the Danish camps
are situated.* In Bishop Gibson's time they appear to have been
called the Castle-hills, though no castle was ever erected upon them.
It is more than probable that Wertha,t the grandfiither of Hengist and
Horsa, in some of his marauding excursions occupied some of these
encampments. They are of various sizes and forms, oblong like the
Roman, who had many encampments in the neighbourhood of
Gainsborough, and orbicular like the Scandinavian. This will
account for the finding of Roman urns, coins, etc, upon this tract of
territory. Hbtorians relate that Swene the Danish tyrant was slain
in one of these encampments by an unknown hand, on the night of
the Purification of St. Mary, a.d. 1013.^
There are no vestiges of any foundations of any kind of building
on these hills, which the Bishop calls Castle-hills ; they probably took
the name from their contiguity to the castle which King Stephen
gave to William de Romara, Lord of Bolingbroke, a.d. ii4I.§ The
castle was situated at the foot of these hills, on the right bank of the
Trent. The place is now called the Old Hall.
There is no place in the vicinity of Gainsborough that can with
any show of probability be called the site of Sidnacester.
The writer who says that '* Sidnacester was in Lincolnshire, near
the Humber," means Barrow-on-the-Hurober. This place was
anciently called ad Barve^ or *• at the wood," where Wulphere, King
of Mercia, gave Chad, Bishop of Mercia, ** land of fifty families to
build a monastery." " In this place," says Bede, ''are marks of the
regular life instituted by him, which continue to this day.'|| At the
present time there is an ancient Saxon church dedicated to the Holy
Trinity, therefore it cannot be Sidnacester.
As to the opinion of the historian of the bishof^ic of Lincoln, Mr.
Stark, and others who suppose that Stow St Mary was the ancient
Sidnacester, it is sufficient to say that the former place had scarcely
any existence when the latter was the seat of the bishop. Stow St.
* **Mon. Angl.," vi., p. 824.
t Vide T. Sprotti " Chronica," p. 99.
X **Chron. Anel. Petroburg.," sub anno; also LAnsd. MSS., 207, E. 534; also
*• Ex Chron. Ely,^* p. 248.
§ "Mon. Ang," vol. i., p, 824,
II Bede, "Eccles. Hist.," lib. iv., cap. 3.
The Ancient Anglo-Saxon See of Sidnacester. 237
Mary took its rise from the following circumstance. About a.d. 672
£theldreda, the Queen of Edwin, King of Northumbria, rested on a
flowery umbrageous spot of ground on her way to the Isle of Ely ;
and on account of a miracle which w^ wrought there, she caused
a church to be erected to commemorati the event in honour of the
Virgin Mary. From that time the place was called Etheh-edestow,
which in Latin isrepausatio Ethdreda^ or " Ethelreda's resting-place."
Before the Queen's arrival there were no houses at Stow, it was only
a flowery mead interspersed with ash-trees ; after the building of the
church a village sprang up around it* Thus it b manifest Stow
could not be Sidnacester.
There are three villages in Domesday in the province of Lindsey
called Chirchebi^ which are at this day called — Kirkby {East\ dedi-
cated to St Nicholas, 6 miles west-south-west of Spilsby ; Kirkby-cum-
Osgodby^ dedicated to St Denis, 4 miles north-west by north of Market
Rasen ; Kirkby-upon-Bain^ dedicated to St Mary, 4^ miles west of
Homcastle.
Chirchebi is the Norman mode of writing the Anglo-Saxon Circeby,
The Normans usually put the letter k after the Anglo-Saxon C, as
Circe^ Chircke, The Danes make the Ch into K, thus Chirche
becomes Kirke. The terminal by signifies '*a dwelling;" hence
Cii/r^^/ signifies '4he site or place of a church." These three
churches are too insignificant ever to have been more than the
churches of the vills whose names they bear. They were evidently
of Anglo-Saxon foundation, as the term bi shows, from the Sax. by^
IsL by^ " a dwelling."
There is a fourth place in the province of Lindsey written in
Domesday Chirchetone, which Dr. Pegge conjectures (for he allows it
no higher character) to be the site of Sidnacester.t At this day it is
called Kirton-in- Lindsey, to distinguish it from Kirton-in-Holland. It
is situated about i^ miles to the west of the Ermine Street, and about
midway between Lincoln and the Humber, just opposite the place
where Richard of Cirencester places the mansio in medio in the
seventeenth Iter.
It appears from Domesday:^ that Elirton in the time of Kling
Edward was a place of great importance, and that when the Survey
was made it was worth eighty pounds. Earl Edwin held a court at
Kirton of twenty manors, when two hundred and twenty-three soke-
men attended.§
* Brit Mus. Cotton. MSS., Domitian, A. xv. fa 17 ; also "Mon. Angl.," voL i.,
p. QO ; alao <* Ex Lib. de Genealpg. et Vita S. £thelred«," p. 854.
f Vidi Dr. Pegge's Dissertation on Sidnacester in Nichols's " Leicestershixe,"
Appendix, p. 3.
X Orig. 339.
§ SiKa was the power and privilege of hearing and determining causes and
disputes, levying forfeitures and fines, executing kws, and administering justice
wiihin a certain precinct. Socmen, says Nidiols, were those inferior landowners
238 Anglo-Saxon Local Antiquities.
When we consider the manner in which the ancient and valuable
document called Dom^oc was compiled, we may rest 8atis6ed that
nothing would be entered in it without due consideration, and that
each subject would be thoroughly sifted before it was chronicled.
The commissioners for the parts of Lindsey were Remigius, Bishop
of Lincoln; Walter GifTard, Earl of Buckingham; Henry de Ferers;
and Adam the brother of Eudo Dapifer, who probably associated
with them some principal person in the neighbourhood.
The inquisitors, it appears upon the oath of the sheriff, the lord of
the manor, the presbyter of the church, the reve of the hundred, the
bailiff and six villans of the place, were, among, other questions, to
inquire into the name ofthepUue,^
The name of the place, according to the spelling of the Norman
scribes in Domesday, is Chirchetanty which evidently signifies
*' Churchtown," the place where the principal church or cathedral
of the diocese was situated. Although there is no mention made in
Domesday Book of a church, it does not necessarily follow there was
not one, or at least the ruins of one. No notice whatever is taken
of the church of Dorchester, although the seat of the bishopric had
only been removed from it a short time before the taking of the
Survey.
It is a matter of history that at the Conquest every vill had its
church. When the Survey was made there was no injunction to the
jurors to make a return of churches, consequently the mention of
them at all was irregular. At the time of the Survey there were no
less than 45,011 parish churches within the kingdom, whereas the
whole number actually noticed in the Survey amounts to a few more
than i,7oo.t
It is probable that the church at Kirton was in ruins, having been
destroyed by the marauding Danes, who in a.d. 870 massacred the
inhabitants of Lindsey, destroyed by fire the Christian churches and
monasteries, and plundered the towns and villages. | Henry I. rebuilt
it, and gave it to St. Mary's, Lincoln.g
A.D. 949, according to Le Neve,| Leofwyn had the diocese of
in the 80C or franchise of a mat baron, privileged villans, who though their
tenures were absolutely copyhold, yet had an interest equal to a freehold. Socmen
owed suit and service to Uie lord's court. The bishop and the earl sat together
in the county court, the bishoo as chancellor, to deliver DH rectum and papulum
docert ; the earl as secular judge, to deliver rectum secuH and populum coercere ;
as is manifest by the laws of King Edgar and others. The county court was
assembled twice, and the hundreds and wapentakes twelve times in a year. The
custom of Borough English still remains in the Manor of Kirton.
♦ " Reports of Public Records," p 383.
t Vide Spelman's « Gloss.," p. 349 ; Sprott's **Heame," p. Z14.
X Turner 8 " Histoiy of the Anglo-Saxons," vol. i., p. 513.
§ Vide in "Mon. AngL," torn, lil, pt i., p. 257 ; Add. MSS., 3,126.
II *< Fasti Ecclesix Anglic."
The Aficient Anglo-Saxon See of Sidnacester. 239
Sidnacester committed to him. It had continued void almost eighty
years, and the see for both was established at Dorchester. a.d. 1092
the see was removed to Lincoln.*
A.D. 1085 the Survey of Lindsey was completed, therefore the
time elapsed between 949, when the see of Sidnacester was united
to Dorchester, and the time when the commissioners made the in-
quiry about the name of the place, etc., was 136 years; so that the
father or the grandfather of most of the persons would be living at
the time of the removal of the see of Sidnacester to Dorchester, and
thus they would be able to transmit to their children or grandchildren
a correct account of the place and its name, and they, again, would
be able on oath to declare to the commissioners the state and name
of the place. The name given in Domesday, as was before observed,
is Chirchctone. In Anglo-Saxon t^triy or Normanicb tone^ in the end
of names of places signifies a town, or, properly, an enclosure or
place defended against unwelcome intrusion either by the simplest
fence or the strongest fortification. The difference between Chirchebi
and Chirchetone is this : the former means simply the place of a
church, while the latter signifies a church that is protected by an
enclosure. As Kirton is the only place in the province of Lindsey
mentioned in Domesday as an enclosed church, it is fair to infer that
this enclosure was added by way not only of protection, but to desig-
nate it by some outward mark as a church of eminence — in short, as
the sedes episcopcUis of the diocese.
Sidnacester appears to be compounded of Sidna and cester. Sidna\
is the Anglo-Saxon genitive plural oi Side ^ cester is the Anglo-Saxon
for any trench or bank of an old camp, called by the Britons caer^
and all places which had been walled by the Romans the Saxons
called cester,% The British name for Sidnacester would be Caer Sidin^
/>., the " sanctuary of Side."
[The four next paragraphs are omitted, as they are devoted to the
proving that " Side was one of the names of Ceres, the genius of the
ark and the mother of mankind. "J
That the' Britons paid adoration to Side, is manifest in all the
Bardic writings, particularly in the poem of Taliesin concerning the
sons of Llyr. He says :
" Ys cywcir fy nghadeir^^.i^tfr Sidi^*^
(" Complete is my chair in Caer Sidi"\^
Sidnacester appears to have been built upon a temple of Sidb. It
* Matt. Par., sub anno.
f Florence writes it " Siddena ;" Higden, ''ad nrbem Sidenciam ;" Langhome,
" Sidnacestrensis ;" Gervas, "Sidnisa." Vide " Flor. Wigor.," p. 62a; Lang,
home's "Chron.," p. 233 ; Gervas, "Act Pont. Cant Polych.," lib. L, p. 53.
X Sid?, gen. s. Siden, gen. p. Sidena or Sidna,
8 Vide T. Richards' British Diet., " Caer."
II Vide Davies' " British Druids," p. 294.
240 Anglo-Saxon Local Anliqiiilies.
is a well-known fact that Christian missionaries turned to account
the religio loci^ and whenever a substantial building was found in
existence, it was taken possession of for the benefit of the new
religion.*
Under these circumstances nothing was more natural than the
establishment of a baptismal church in a place that adopted Chris-
tianity, and that the substitution of one creed for the other not only
did not require the abolition of the old machinery, but would be
much facilitated by retaining it. Therefore there would be nothing
uncommon in establishing a Christian church on an ancient temple
of Sid^, the British Ceres.
This appears to have been the case at Kirton, for when that church
was rebuilt after the Conquest, care was taken to place over the south
door an old stone on which was an assemblage of Runic knots, taken
from a former building, which doubtless was the ruins of Sidnacester,
and that this stone formed part of the temple of Sid^.t The learned
Hickes tells us that these Runic gyrations signify an indissoluble
knot of piety and affection ; by the Scandinavians the Runic knot was
called a true-love knot or emblem of plighted fidelity.} On sacred
edifices it is a symbol or badge of dependence on the supreme
dominion which the Almighty has over all His works. It is the
Euordorchogian of the ancient Druids.§ The stone with the Runic
knots is still over the priest's door of Kirton Church. [The seven
next paragraphs are omitted, as they deal with Bryant's theories of
British mythology.]
From the arguments adduced, may it not be said that it is highly
probable that Sidnacester was built upon a heathen temple of Sid^, at
the place now called Kirton-in-Lindsey ? We have attempted to show
that no other place in the province of Lindsey was so likely as the
Chirchetone of Domesday, being the most important town in the
division ; and that at the time of the Survey, Count Edwin had up-
wards of 2 30 sokemen to attend his court, which had the jurisdiction
over twenty manors. To say nothing of the etymology of the word
ChirchtofUy certainly this place appears to be the site of the ancient
* The custom of erecting churches on the site of heathen temples continued in
Scotland to the tenth century, for Patric, Bishop of Hebrides, desires Orlygus to
found a church where he should find three upright stones. Vi(U Johnstone's
" Antiq. Celto-Scand.," p. 15.
t Incised stones and Runic knots upon them are found in the walls of almost
every church in the Isle of Man, indicating that these churches were built upon
the sites of heathen temples. Such stones were preserved by the first builders of
churches in England, Scotland, and Ireland. Vide "Archseologia," v. 5 ;
Pennant's " Tour in Scotland," etc. Bartholini gives a curious instance, mp.^
p. 613.
X Vide Icelandic Gospel of St. Mark, chap, i., where trulofad\& *' promised"
or ** engaged."
§ Vide " VV. Archseolog.," p. 212 ; Cynddelw poem.
The Ancient Anglo-Saxon See of Stdnacester. 241
episcopal see. Where in the whole of Lindsey could a more suitable
locality be found than at Kirton, situated between Lindum, or
Lincoln^ and Ad Abum, or the Huraber, near a most beautiful Roman
road which goes in a direct line through a great part of the diocese ?
From it there would be free access to every part of the province — 2.
circumstance which is of great importance to a missionary community.
When the see of Sidnacester was founded, the bishop and his clergy
lived together. From the episcopal residence they went to instruct
the heathen in the diocese, and to administer the rites of the Church.
In course of time, churches sprang up as circumstances permitted,
and some time before the Conquest every village had its diurch and
^' preost ;" although only 222 churches were returned in the Survey for
Lincolnshire, yet unexceptionable evidence can be adduced of the
existence of a larger number.* It is manifest that in the reign of
Edward the Confessor there must have been a very great number of
what were strictly called parish churches, it being asserted in one of
the laws ascribed to that king that in many places there were three or
four churches, where in former times there was but one.t
George Dodds, D.D.
The Place of St Oswald's Death.
[1866, Pari ir,^ p. 167.]
There dawns slowly, in the far-away gloom, a hope that some day
the Saxon Chronicle will be known as a convenient abridgment of
other more copious local and personal histories. Were the portion
which had its origin at Peterborough separated from the rest, its local
character, with the interwoven forged documents serving local eccle-
siastical purposes, would sufficiently stamp it as apocryphal, and not
at all worthy to stand side by side with honest history. And if,
among other materials, there has been detected a Mercian fragment
about iEdelflaed, we gather that this princess had been made the
subject of a biographical memoir at a time when her name was still
surrounded with a measure of interest and a traditionary knowledge
of facts ; at a date, in short, not much later than her death. Means
exist also to prove that in abbeys the memory of the founder was
maintained, and circumstances which could not find their way into
the annals of England remained recorded in the monastic registers.
The West Saxon details, under date 755, came doubtless from some
source more copious about the Wessex royal family than what we now
possess. The following extract, hitherto unpublished, from "iElfric's
Life of St Oswald," mentions much which is not obtained from Beda,
and, as its date is three centuries and a half later than the event, it
goes to prove the preservation of documents concerning this king
* Wilkins, " Concil. Mag. Brit.," torn, i., p. 3a [See/^//, pp. 257, et seqJ]
+ y«rfl, p. 311.
VOU VI. 16
242 AnglO'Saxofi Local Antiquities.
quite independent of the Chronicle and of Beda : " It happened
that Penda, King of Mercia, made war upon him ; the same Penda
who supported Cedwalla at the killing of King Oswald's relative
Eadwine (see Chron. 633). And Pcnda knew nothing of Christ, and
all the folk of the Mercians was as yet unbaptized. The two came
to the battle at Maserfeld, and joined in combat, till the Christians
fell, and the heathen approached to the holy Oswald. Then saw he
that the end of his life was approaching, and prayed for his people
there falling and dying, and committed their souls and himself to
God ; and as he fell thus, he cried, * God have mercy on our souls f
Then the heathen king ordered that his head should be struck off,
and his right arm, and that they should be set up for a mark (and
guarantee of victory). After Oswald's death, Oswig, his brother,
succeeded to the kingdom of Northumbria, and with a band rode to
the place where his brother's head stood fastened on a stake, and
took the head and the right hand, and conveyed them with honour to
the church at Lindisfame." Smith, in his *' Beda," p. 11 a, sufficiently
identifies Maserfeld, which is in Lpancashire, four miles from Win-
wick, a place doubtless named from the event, that is, from Winn, a
" conflict," and wic, a "dwelling," just as the spot where Penda him-
self was killed soon afterwards, a.d. 655, was called " Winwidfeld."
But it is obvious that Penda would carry the head, his trophy, into
the heart of his own dominions, and probably let his Welsh neigh-
bours have a proof of his prowess. No wonder then that he set it
up at Oswald's tree, or " stake," now Oswestry, not far whence, says
Smith, White Church ("Whitchurch") was founded in the saint's
honour. Oswy's ride to this point for the recovery of the head and
arm was an exploit worthy of a warrior prince. Any glossary will
furnish examples of "tree" used for " stake" or " crux" in the Welsh
" Crux Oswaldi." Near the present town of Oswestry, perhaps a mile
and a half distant, is a strong ancient camp, which now goes by the
name of "Old Oswestry," possibly Penda's headquarters. Beda,
observe, III. vi., separates the arm of the saint from the rest of the
body. [See Note 28.]
O. Cockayne.
(2
CD
t
t
t'
-r
ir'
Anglo-Saxon Ornaments^ Etc.
x6— a
ANGLO-SAXON ORNAMENTS, ETC.
Anglo-Saxon Fragment.
[I7S4./. aSa.]
SO few of the Anglo-Saxon monuments, if you accept the
manuscripts and coins, have escaped the shipwreck of time,
that, with all my best endeavours, I could never procure more than
one small remnant of that nation ; neither do I find that others have
been much more successful. This brass fragment (for it is imper-
fect) was bought ont of a brazier's shop at Canterbury, where coins
of the ancient Saxons are often found The Saxon letters are
D and 6. On the obverse indeed you have the Roman E, which
appeaiB most frequently on the Anglo-Saxon money in Sir Andrew
Fountaine's tables ; however, in some of it you have both forms on
one coin, as here in this monument (see Sir A. Fountaine, tab. viii.
Offa 5. tab. L, Alfred. iL tab. iil, Cynethrjrth. 3). And whereas the
C Sn fecit is round and not angular, as might perhaps be expected, I
observe that the Anglo-Saxon coins, especially those of the eccle-
siastics, afford the same (see Tab. vi Eadmund 34, 35, 36, 37.
Tab. ix., St. Petri Moneta).
The word drOUen is that by which the word Dominus, or
Lord, as spoken of God, is rendered in the Anglo^axon version of
the Old and New Testament (see the 30th ch. of Exodus, and the
rst, and, and 4th ch. of Sl Matthew concerning the etymology of it).
Dr. Hickes's " Epistolary Dissertation to Sir Barth. Shower," p. 156,
may be consulted by the curious, where the learned author observes
that it is also applied to great men; but there is no reason for under-
standing it so here, and tlierefore I rather take this to be a frag-
ment of an inscription of some monument which was once sacred to
some religious use, but to what? This remain is so small and imper-
fect, 'tis absolutely impossible to say.
I am. Sir, yours, etc Paul Grmreob.
2^6 Anglo-Saxon Ornaments^ Etc.
Gold Ring.
[i77i»/.43.1
A kiige antique ring was taken oat of the Thaines, over against the
Tower, the gold whereof was valued at six guineas. It was purchased
by a jeweller in St Martin's Lane^ and b judged by the antiquarians
to be eight hundred yean okL
Ornament
[iTTftM 53S. 536.1
A friend having a curious piece of antiquity in his poKession, I
have, at his request, endeavoured to give a kind of draught exactly
corresponding with the dimensions of ic, in hopes of some illustration
through the means of your agreeable miscellany (see the Plate).
It has a quadrangi^ base, with an ear at each comer, as having
been nailed or riveted to the head of something towards the top :
the sides are somewhat arched to a point, and are ornamented with a
sort of filigree or open work. It is of brass, and hollow all the way
np. A little above the base, and on one side only, is a Saxon inscrip-
tion, which has been pretty accurately copied This piece of anti-
quity was found a few years ago in a mass of gravel in digging a
cellar near the middle of the town of Pershore in Worcestershire.
As there was a considerable abbey in this town, it is conjectured
that it was an ornament 00 the head of an abbot's, or rather a prior's,
staff; and that perhaps a gem was suspended on a string that was
passed through a small hole that has been drilled through the head,
over the inscription. But, if this was its use, it is remarkable that
there does not seem to be any allusion to ecclesiastical history in the
ornamental figures*
Y. Z*
[i78o»/. 75.1
We are certainly extremely obliged to " Y. Z." for his drawing of
that curious Saxon relique, p. 536. However, I cannot concur with
him in his idea of its being an ornament on the head of an abbot's, or
rather a prior's, staff, since this must have been of the nature of ^Lpeduniy
or crosier, and consequently of a very different /orm. Besides, the
staff in that case must have been exceedingly thick and great, and it
may be doubted whether the lesser abbots were entitled to a crosier.
The same objection of thickness, again, lies against its being a walk-
ing-stick, neither does the pointed top accord with this notion ; and
I can hardly deem it the cover of a pyx, because of there being four
tars instead of two to serve for hinges. The use therefore of this
ancient ornament must be left in suspense.
Upon what ground your correspondent supposes a string passed
through it, to which a gem was suspended, I cannot easily conceive.
The words are these : *' Perhaps a gem was suspended on a string
Ornament, 247
that passed through a small hole, that has been drilled through the
head, over the inscription." The aperture does not necessarily imply
a string, and how the gem gets in is certainly difficult to comprehend;
this therefore seems to require some further explanation.
As to the inscription, I read it "Godric me workt"* (" Godrtcus me
fecit**), Godric, now Gooderick, was a common Saxon name, and
appears often on the coins ; ai^d it was usual in those times not only
for the artists to put their names on their performances, in imitation
of the ancient Greek statuaries, as ** Joma VLzfecit**^ but also for the
piece, or thing made, to be the speaker ; whence we read, on that
famous Jewell in Dr. Hickes's "Thesaurus," ^^yElfredus me jussit
fabricari ;*X and again, in the preface, " ^thredus conjux Heanrceda
ME celavitj Le., OBlari jussit J%
Though it be no easy matter to develop the use of this unconnected
ornament at this time of day, yet the public is highly indebted to
** Y. Z." for an accurate delineation of so singular a remnant of anti-
quity, the Saxon monuments being indeed exceedingly rare.
T. RowR
[1780,/. 12S.]
Whatever was the destination of the piece of brass engraved in
your Magazine, 1779, P* 53^ (^^^ ^ rather think it was a shrine or part
of one), the inscription, as exhibited by your correspondent, is
" Bodric me Worh^* i.e., Bodric made me. " Worh^* may be an
abbreviation for worhte. It corresponds with the inscription of the
famous Bijou, found in the Isle of Athelney^ engraved by Hickes
(Thesaur. i., p. 40), Dr. Musgrave (Belg. Brit.), and Dr. Gibson
(Camden in Somerset), Alfred caused me to be made.
No such name as " Bodric" occurs among the abbots of this
house» whose foundation, as an abbey, is as early as the close of the
fourteenth century, in the reign of Ethelred, King of Mercia (Tann,
Not. Mon. 616; Willis's Mil Ab. ii., 260, 338 ; Moa Ang. ii. 203).
It is therefore probable that Bodric was either a benefactor, or the
artist who executed this piece of filigrane work. [No signature.]
The Ring of Alhstan, Bishop of Sherborne, found at
Llysfaen, Carnarvonshire.
(1823, Part IL,pp, 483, 484.]
I send you sketches of the front and extent of this precious relic
of the ornamental taste and magnificence of the ninth century. The
ring is now in my possession.
The use of rings is of very remote antiquity. Nuptial rings were
worn by the ancient Greeks and Romans, and Tertuliian notices the
• Lye. t Sir A. Fountaine« Tab. vi., No. 27.
X Hickes, " Thcs.," p. 242. § Hickes, " Thes.," Praef., p. xiii.
248 Anglo-Saxon Ornaments^ Etc.
custom as having been adopted by the early Christians. The epis-
copal ring is also of very remote origin, forming, indeed, an especial
part of the ceremonial of conseciationy and used occasionally as
seals. Of this description is the one now under notice. It was
found about fifty yean ago, by a labourer, near to the surface of the
ground, on a common at Llys faen. It is of massy gold, weighing
nearly an ounce and a quarter. The workmanship is very neat, and
the enamelling distinct and perfect Tht pattern is alternately a
circle and a lozenge ; the outer part wrought in an ornamental style.
The circular compartments, four in number, bear the epigraph. On
the first (in Saxon characters), X ; on the second, LH ; on the third,
ST ; on the fourth, X ; and the Runic N, like X, forming the word
Alhstan.
The lozenges are occupied with different devices ; on the first is a
rude representation of a dragon, the cognizance of the kingdom of
Wessex, and under which Alhstan, Bishop of Sherborne, often led its
armies to battle. There were three Bishops of London of this
name, and one (the seventh) of Sherborne ; but the ring is supposed
to have been the property of the latter (who filled the episcopal chair
from 817 to 867), being well known as an efificient memb^ of the
true Church militant Dr. Pegge, quoting the Saxon Chronicle,
observes, that in 823 (after his consecration as BishopX King Egbert
sent his son Ethelwolf, Alhstan his Bishop, and Woolfherd hn
Alderman — a curious trio— to drive Baldred, King of Kent, across
the Thames. On the accession of Ethelwolf to the throne, the
Bishop distinguished himself, that is, to use the French phraseology,
* covered himself with ghry^ in many military actions ; nor was he
less distinguished as a naval hero, for, according to Matthew of
Westminster, he, in conjunction with Earl Other, attacked the Danes
off Sandwich, put their fleet to the rout, and captured nine of their
largest ships. In 828 Egbert visited North Wales, in a hostile
manner ; and Dr. Pegge argues the probability of Alhstan having had
the command of the army, and that this ring was at that period lost
We have no proof, however, that the invaders penetrated so far as
Carnarvonshire, in the north-east comer of which the ring was found.
Soon after its discovery, another gold ring of much greater weight
was picked up near the same place — ^a situation close to the sea ; but
its manufacture was extremely coarse when compared with this. In
order to account for the superiority of workmanship in this ring, at a
time when the Saxons were so barbarous in their manners, the learned
Doctor says that Egbert the Great resided in his younger age not less
than twelve years at the Court of Charlemagne, and it is not impro-
bable that some artists in the enamelling line might have been
brought by him into England from thence.
This ring attracted the particular notice of Dr. Pegge, in 1771 ;
and in 1773 he read a paper respecting its history before the Society
Anglo-Saxon Jewel. 249
of Antiquaries, on the 2nd of December, which is printed in Archseo-
logia iv. 47. J. H. Hanshall.
Ancient Weapon.
[182a, Port II., fp. 454, 4S5.1
A few days ago, as some miners were digging, and forming a
puddle or washing-place for lead ore, at the Lead Mine Works, ad-
joining Oakland (Cilrhew), by Llanrwst, they discovered in the ruins
of the earth, two yards deep, a batde axe, in excellent preservation,
which is supposed to have been lost and buried there since the great
battle, fought near Gwydir House, now the seat of the present Lord
Gwydir (which is near to, and adjoining the above place), by the
illustrious Cambrian Prince Llywarch Hen, with the Saxons, in the
year 6ia Gwydir derives its name from Gwaed-diry or, the Bloody
Land, in allusion to the above battle fought there at that period. It
is conjectured that this curious instrument, in addition to its anti-
quity, is of a valuable metallic substance. Its weight b twenty-eight
ounces, and it is now deposited, for inspection, with Mr. R. Jones,
stationer, Ruthin.
Anglo-Saxon Antiquities.
[1858, -fifff //.,/. 65.]
During repairs of the high road leading from Wye to Dover, at the
foot of the hill about a mile from Wye, a grave was laid open con-
taining the skeleton of a man, with the umbo of a shield, a sword, a
glass drinking-cup, and some smaller objects. The Rev. L. B.
Larking lost no time in obtaining the remains for the Kent Archaeo-
logical Society ; and, on their part, he liberally rewarded the finder.
Now, however, it isL reported the lord of the manor puts in a claim 1
Very recently the Society of Antiquaries obtained some similar
remains from the West of England ; and they also were ordered to
surrender by a lord of the manor. In both cases the fragile objects
were procured solely for scientific purposes ; and it is to be hoped
that lords of manors will rather aid than obstruct the progress of
antiquarian and historical researches.
Anglo-Saxon Jewel, representing St Neot
[1826^ Part /., pp. 497-499.1
An Anglo-Saxon jewel still exists, supposed to contain a miniature
of St Neot, and to commemorate the veneration in which he was
held by King Alfred. It was accidentally found in 1693, at Newton
Park, some distance north of the site of Athelney Abbey, in Somer-
setshire, near the junction of the Parrot and the Thone, the spot to
which Alfred retired during the Danish troubles, and where he after-
wards founded a monastery. In 1698 it was in the possession of
Colonel Nathaniel Palmer, of Fairfield, in Somersetshire ; and in 17 18
2$o Anglo-Saxon Ornaments^ Etc.
it was deposited by his son, Thomas Palmer, Esq., in the Adimolean
Museum, at Oxford, where it is now preserved.
The form of this jewel (which is correctly* depicted in the lower
half of Plate IL) b battledore-shaped ; its dimensions are, length 2*4
inches, greatest breadth 1*23, thickness '46. The obverse is faced
with an oval plate of rock-crysul, ^ of an inch thick : throogh this is
seen the miniature, formed of enamelled mosaic, the compartments
being let into celb of gold; the figure is that of a roan, holding a
fleur-de^lys in each hand. The reverse is a detached plate of gold
(lying immediately upon the back of the miniature), on which is
elegantly traced a fleur-de-lys, branching into three stems. The
edge is bevelled towards the front, and contains the legend, ^
XELFRED MEE HEHT EEWRCAN ; that is, i{< AELFRED
ME ORDERED TO-BE-WROUGHT.— The gem terminates in a
grotesque figure, representing on the obverse, the head of some sea-
monster, probably (says Dr. Musgrave) a dolphin ; on the reverse, the
lower jaw is wanting its place being supplied by a scaly flat sur^tce :
the mouth of this animal embraces a small tube, travened by a gold
pin, apparently a rivet, originally passed through some wooden stem
to which it has been fixed, and which has perished.
Various have been the conjectures t with regard to the figure on
* A loose dcscriptkni, bj Dr. Mnsgrave, appeared in 169S, with two fignres.
(" Philos. Transw/' Dec., 1698, No. 247, vol. u., p. 441.) It was noticed more at
laige by Dr. Hidces in 170a (" Philos. Tnms., No. 260^ toL xxiL, p. 464.) A
very detailed but not quite accurate account was given bj Dr. Hidics in 170$,
with engravings of the obverse, levene, and edge ; the first figure being firom a
drawing bj Sir Robert Harlej. (*' Hickesii Ling. Vett. Septent. Thesaur.,"
(torn. L, pp. viii^ 142, 143, Oxon, 1705.) It was described bj Heame, in 171 1.
(Heame's "Duaertation on the word 'iEstel,'" pp. xxiv., xxv., prefixed to
Leland's ** Itinerary," voL vii, edit Oxon, 1769.) It again exercised the talents
of Dr. Musgrave, in 17 15, in a very elegant dissertation, accompanied by three
engravings. (Musgravius, "De IcnnciUa quondam M. Regis i£lfredi," 1715.)
The opinions of the two former antiquaries were reviewed by Bfr. Wise, in 1722,
whose criticism is accompanied with a figure of the obverse only. (Wise, in
** Asser de Reb. Gest. ifilfredi," App., pp. 172, 172, Oxon, 1722.) Some criticisms
by Dr. Pegee and by Dr. Mills appeared in 1765. (**Ardueologia," vol. iL,
pp. 73, 79^) Engravings of this gem mav be seen in Wotton, " Ling. Veit. Septent.
lliesaur. Consp«ctus, p. iS, edit. 1708 ; Skelton's Translation of Wotton, with
notes, p. 14, edit. 1735 » Marmora Oxon, P. III., fig. 137, edit. Chandler, 1763 ;
Camden's *'Brit," voL L, p. 77, edit. Gibson, 1722; and vol. L, p. 59, edit.
Cough, 1789. All these figures of this gem seem to be copied from Hickes's
plate, with little variation ; they are much too large and distorted represeniations.
t Hickes, at first, suggested that it was a figure of our Saviour^ the Uly-sceptre
in each hand denoting His double reign, in heaven and in earth : Musgrave ulti-
mately adopted the same opinion. Hickes thought it, however, not improbable
that it might be intended for the /VjAf ; but, at last, he concluded that it represents
some Sai/U; he was led to this opinion from the inspection of a miniature of St.
Luke, in an ancient MS. of the Gospels, drawn in a nearly similar manner, holding
a flowery cross in each hand. ('*Ling., Vett. Septent Thesaur.," torn, l, p. 8,
Ag- 5*) ^^ conceived that it depicted King Alfred himself, on account of the
helmet and military vest, in which (as he supposed) the figure is represented.
Anglo-Saxon Jewel. 251
the obverse. The conclusion to which Dr. Hickes ultimately came,
is the most plausible — ^that it was designed to represent some saint.
The individual intended, it would be impossible to determine from
the inspection of the figure alone ; but that it was St Neot* can
scarcely admit of a reasonable doubt, since history informs us that he
was the relative, and the spiritual counsellor of the King, and that he
was venerated by Alfred above all other f saints.
As to the use to which this piece of jewelry was appropriated,
opinion has been divided. Dr. Hickes, Dr. Musgrave, and the late
Mr. Whitaker, imagined that it was worn by a chain round the neck
of the King. Mr. Hearne thought it probable that it was attached
to the end of a cylinder, upon which a MS. was rolled, presented by
the King to some monastery. Mr. Wise and Dr. Pegge conceived
that it formed the head of a style.^ Possibly it was mounted upon a
standard (after the manner of the Roman eagle), or was elevated
upon the summit of a staff, being carried into battle, for the purpose
of animating the soldiers. This conjecture is hazarded as affording
an easy solution of the fabulous narratives, which state that St Neot,
after his decease, was the constant '' attendant '' and ''fore-runner" of
Alfred ; that he ''accompanied" the King in his engagement with the
Danes near Chippenham, "led on the troops," "preceded the
standards," "fought in splendour before the army," and "gained the
victory" for the Saxons. If we make some little allowance for the
turgid expressions § of monkish chronicles (superstitiously referring
* Obvious as this conclusioii is, Mr. Whitaker was the first to notice it
(Whitaker's " Life of St. Neot," p. 273, edit. 1806.) Dr. Hickes conjectured that
the holy man intended was St. Cuthbert, who is said by William of Malmsbury
(" De Gest. Reg.," lib. ii., cap. 4, in Saville, " Anel. Script.," p. 43), to have ap-
peared to Alfred in his seclusion in the marshes of Athelney. Malmsbury, how-
ever, is the only hbtorian who mentions St. Cuthbert with relation to this incident;
all the other Chronicles which refer to it agreeing that it was St. Neot, who was
seen by Alfred in his sleep, both at Athelney and on other occasions. (See Saxon
Homily on St Neot, MS^. Cott. Vesp. D. XIV. in " Hist. St. Neot's," pp.
260, ci. ; Asserius, " De Reb. Gest iElfr.." in an. 878 ; " Vita S'c'i Neoti," MSS.,
Bodl. 535, in Whitaker's "Life of Neot;" "Vita SVi Neoti," MSS., Cott
Claud. A.V. in Mabillon, Acta Sanct, sec. iv., P. IL, p. 334; "Chronicle of the
Conventual Libr. St Neot's," MSS. Trin. Coll., Camb., R. vii., 28, in Gale
Script XX., tom. i., p. 167,) There is not, therefore, a shadow of reason for
supposing that the Northumbrian Bishop was the individual designed in the jewel ;
while many considerations point out the Cornish abbot as having been thus super-
stitiously honoured.
f " Rex Alfredus, Sanctorum pedihus accHvis et subditis, S. Neotum in summA
veneratione habebat" Ingulphi, '* Hist Croyl." (Fulman, Script., p. 27).
X King Alfred sent a copy of his translation of St Gregory's Pastoral, together
^tfith an iESTLE, to each Cathedral. (See Alfred's Preface to St. Greg. Past, in
Spelman, "Vita iElfredi," p. 197.)
§ The following are the expressions in which these fables are recorded : '* Ic
|>e coppen jrape." (Sax. Hom. on St Neot MSS., Cott Vesp. D. XIV.
in "Hist. St. Neot's," p. 260.) "Teque tuosque ducam." " Praedux semper
extiti tuus." "Nonne videtis, Coram splendijerum nobis bellare Neotum?"
252 Anglo-Saxon Ornaments^ Etc.
ordinary occurrences to the miraculous agency of the Saint whose
merits it was their object to extol), these fables may be naturally
traced to the simple fact that the King was accustomed to have this
image of his guardian saint near his person, and that he conducted
his army under its supposed tutelary influence. An inspection of the
figure, holding the flowering branches in his hands, almost realizes
the singular expression of the monkish historians, "Neotus/o/m^^a^/'
while the supposition that this image was elevated on a military
banner affords an easy interpretation to the apparently hyperbolical
terms (as applied to a deceased saint), '' Neotus signifer et fravius
Regis antecedebat exercitum."
Mr. Whitaker* supposes (very plausibly) that after the victory of
Chippenham, King Alfred presented this jewel to the Monastery of
Athelney, in testimony of his pious gratitude to St. Neot; "there,
probably, it remained till the Reformation ; thence it was taken for
plunder, or for preservation ; and, in its removal, was accidentally
lost, not far from its old depository."
As these particulars have come to my knowledge since the publica-
tion of the Supplement to my " History of St Neot's,'' I have printed
a few additional leaves^ with the engravings, for insertion in that work,
for the accommodation of those who may be already in possession
of it
Yours, etc. G. C Gorham.
Ancient Bone Implement.
[i866> Part L, pp. 541, 542.]
The interesting bone implement, or whatever else it may prove to
be, which I had the honour to exhibit in December last to the British
Archaeological Association, was the means of bringing together a very
large collection of similarly worked bones on the evening of January
loth of this year, principally from the collections of the Rev. W. S.
Simpson, Mr. Josiah Cato, and Mr. Syer Cuming ; but I regret to
observe, that although this exhibition of curiously cut bones created
great and general interest in the members present, it not only failed
to produce anything like a thoughtful suggestion of the use to which
V Palmificus sum Nectus:* (« Vita S'c'i Neoti/' MSS. Bodl. 535, in Whitaker's
" St Ncot") " Me (sc, Neoto) prsevio gaudebis et protectorc." " In itinere
tuus extiti doctor. *' "Kgo ante vos ibo, in conspectu meo cadent ioimicL"
" Gloriostts servus Christi Neotus, signifer etprceoiuSy Regis antecedebat ezercitum ;
quern videns Rex Alvredus, Commilitones, inquit, nonne videtis eum qai nostras
conterit hostes? si ndsse desideratis, ipse est proculdubio Neotus, Christi miles
invictissimus, per quern hodie prasi^ est in manibus nostris palma victoria f*
(*< Vita SVi Neoti/* MSS. Cott. Claud. A.V. in Mabillon, Acta Sanct., sec iv.,
P. II., pp. 334, 335.) "Prsecedam ante vexilla tua." ("Chronicle of the Con-
ventual Libr. of St. Neot's," MSS. Trin. ColL, Camb., R. VII., 28, in Gale,
Script. XX., torn, i., p. 167.)
• Whitaker's " Life of St. Neot/* p. 273. edit. i8o6.
Ancient Bane Implement. 253
these bones were applied, but it has not brought forward since any
observations or remarks from country or other correspondents in
reference thereto.
As the Titnes and other papers noticed the subject of the evening's
discussion, I am the more struck with this apparent apathy or neglect
of a subject in every way worthy the attention of the antiquary and
the ethnologist; and I have therefore thought it might be as well to
bring the matter into your time-honoured columns, feeling assured
that, once there, it will run the chance of opening up the opinions of
perhaps other collectors, upon the origin and uses of these interesting
relics, and thus serve the purpose I have in view, of elucidating and
explaining that which at present seems indeed to be anything but a
'* bone of dissension.''
Of the antiquity of my specimen there can be no doubt. Professor
Owen having pronounced it to be about the period of the Norman
Conquest, and described it as the " lower end of metatarsal or hind
cannon-bone of a deer." The other specimens, for the most part,
are of an equally great age, and had been found in London at great
depths below the surface in digging out earth for the foundations of
houses or formation of sewers. The principal places, according to
the Rev. W. S. Simpson, where his collection had come from, were
the Tower Hill, Tokenhouse Yard, and Blackfriars : my specimen, of
which a drawing has been kindly made by Mr. Henry H Bumell,
F.S. A., for this paper, was found in earth brought from the site of the
present St Kathenne's Docks, which helped to form the present Bridge
Road at Barnes, Surrey, and where it was found on excavating for a
watercourse, some years ago, with several Roman coins, and given
to me as a curiosity by my late lamented friend, Mr. Edmund Pemell,
a promising and clever civil engineer cut off in the prime of life.
It is well known that on the site of the present docks stood the
Hospital of St Katherine, founded by Queen Matilda, wife to
Stephen, and transferred now to the Regent's Park, where its richly
endowed houses and chapel are prominent architectural features : the
finding such an object within the foundations of the early building
may fairly be taken as an evidence that its use was known to the
inhabitants of the college, and may help to point out that such cut
bones, if any have been discovered on the sites of other ancient
establishments, may have been used for culinary purposes, an idea
that I am inclined to think more likely than any other suggestion I
have hitherto heard made. Still, whatever the use, it indicates a very
low state of art ; for a more unfinished looking article, for whatever
purpose, than the cut bone in question, can hardly be conceived. As
a description of the bones generally is given at p. 213 of the February
number of your excellent magazine for the present year, I will not
trouble you with a recapitulation of it, merely suggesting that the
readers who are interested in the discovery of the exact nature of the
254 Anglo-Saxon Otytaments, Etc.
— - - I 1 1 I I . — ■ — ■ —
uses of these objects will be kind enough to refer to the article in
question, and they will gain, with the engraving herewith given, some
general notion, at all events, of these oddly and roughly contrived
implements.
For the more scientific investigator, I will ask your permission to
print the following description of the bone which has given rise to
this letter, and for which I have to thank my friend, Mr. John Brig-
house, M.R.CS., and a member of the Archaeological A^ociation.
He says :
'' It is a portion of a deer's metatarsal bone ; in the shaft of the
bone is seen a bony septum, which shows the commencement of the
spongy portion or articular end of this bone. The length of the bone
is 5 j^ inches ; it is an inch and six-tenths wide near the joint, and an
inch wide in the shaft. A portion of the shaft of the bone, an inch
and a quarter long and half an inch in width, is not cut away with
remainder of the shaft : the marks of the saw are plainly seen on its
sides and end ; they are also seen very distinctly on all parts of the
bone around the marrow canal Along one surfoce of the bone is
seen a deep groove, in which lodged a tendon ; near the joint is seen
a small opening into the bone, which was a passage for an artery to
supply the spongy bone with blood : the epiphyses are both chipped
off with a chisel or hatchet, the marks of which are plainly visible.
The bone is evidently of great age, and the spongy portion appears
to have lost a great deal of its gelatine."
With one remark I will now conclude my long letter, and it is to
state that in all the examples exhibited, numbering nearly one hun-
dred, this peculiarity of the chipping off very roughly the epiphyses,
or swelling sides of the joint end of the bone, existed ; and this cut-
ting off seems to my mind to be for the purpose of packing the bones
more closely together when put away, rather than to help the holder,
as some have supposed, in his grasp of the implement, when in the
act of using it
I am, etc. George R. Wright, F.S.A.
Late Anglo-Saxon Antiquities,
LATE ANGLO-SAXON ANTIQUITIES.
Cross Cut in the Chalk.
[iSaj, PartlLtP. 79.]
ON the Btedlow Hills is to be tnuxd the figure of a cross cut
in the chalk, but which, from its having been n^lected many
years, is now nearly obliterated by the grass and weeds growing on it.
A gentleman, who visited it a few days ago, and who is somewhat
of an antiquary, bad the curiosity to measure its dimensions, and to
examine it very narrowly. He supposes it to have been made by the
Saxons about the time Uie Whiteleaf Cross (from which it is not very
distant) was formed ; the mode of working seems to have been by
digging squares of 6 feet, of which there are five, both in the per-
pendicular and the transverse lines, making a cross of 30 feet long
in both lines, and of the width of 6 feet The Whiteleaf Cross, near
Princes Rjsborough, has a perpendicular line of 100 feet, and a trans-
verse me of 70 } the breadth of the perpendicular line at the bottom
is about 50 feet, but it grows gradually nanower, and at the top it is
not more than aa
Saxon Arch at Leicester.
[1793, Art//,/. 1Q49.]
LeiasUr, Nov. 7. — In removing the walls and rubbish of the old
town gaol (which originally was a part of, and lately joined, St. John's
Hospital) a discovery was made oi some mutilated arches of stone,
of high antiqui^, by the simplicity of their formation. These frag-
ments ran in a Ime, parallel with each other, due east from the street,
which, with a fine Sucon arch at the west end, doubdess once formed
the nave of a small church. It was visible also that it had originally
one, if not two, side aisles. The bcautifiil arch, at the west ent^
has been long obscured by the wall which bounds the street: it
spanned the passage which led into the hospital, and appeared of an
age with that pure Saxon remains, St. Mary's cbanceL
VOL. VI. 17
258 Late Anglo-Saxon Antiquities.
Buckingham Castle.
[1821, Part //., p, 464.]
The BuMnghamshire Chronick says : "As some workmen were lately
employed in digging a cellar on the slope of the Church Hill, Buck-
ingham, they discovered a part of the foundations of the old Castle,
which formerly existed there, and which was builti according to the
Saxon Chronicle, by Edward the Elder, in the year 91& The wall
itself was of very considerable thickness, and was composed of un-
hewn stones of the combrache limestone kind, which still abounds
in the neighbourhood So far back as 1670 we find that no traces
of the Castle remained, as it was then made a bowling-green, which
appears to have been much frequented by the gendemen of the
county."
Pavement at Hereford.
[1828, Aff/.,/. 358.]
As some men were lately employed in sinking a cellar on Mr.
Huxley's premises, the south side of Eign Street, Hereford, about 9
feet from the sur&ce of the earth, they found a tesselated pavement.
The square bricks of which it* was composed are many of them orna-
mented with different devices ; many of them have green and black
vitrified surfaces, and a pordon have the arms of our early Saxon
kings, and other arms of ancient fiunilies, on them, nearly as fresh
as when from the kiln. Amongst others are the arms of ^bert and
Ethelbert, a crosse form^ or ; of Edward the Elder, a crosse form6
between four martlets or. The pavement, it has been ascertained, ex-
tends full 45 feet in length from south to north, but the breadth
cannot be estimated. It appears to run to the westward ixom the
spot where the earth has been dug ; and down to the tesserae it is all
what is termed '' made ground." The pavement must doubtless have
belonged to a building of some importance, though no record exists
that can lead to a correct conclusion on the subject
Churches in the Domesday Survey.
[i84i P^ /., M 485-489.1
On noticing the number of churches in the Domesday Survey, and
the proportion assigned to each county, I was most forcibly struck
¥rith the frequency with which they are mentioned in some portions
of the kingdom, and their entire omission in others. It is true the
precept which directed the formation of the Domesday Survey laid
no injunction on the jurors to make a return of churdies, and the
mention of them, if at all made, was of course likely to be irregular.
Yet it is sin^lar that, while in the return for Cambridgeshire one
only is mentioned, and none in Lancashire, Cornwall, or even Middle-
sex, the seat of the metropolis, so many are enumerated io other
Churches in the Domesday Survey. 259
more obscure and, at that time, almost unknown parts of the king-
dom. I was led to this remark more immediately by finding that in
one wapentake of the West Riding of Yorkshire, the wapentake of
Skyrack, no less than thirty places are mentioned, wherein a return
of a church, or of a church and priest, is made. It appears, there-
fore, that in Saxon times Christianity^ must have been extensively
diffused throughout this part of the West Riding, and, as all mention
of chapels is excluded from the Domesday Survey, it seems probable
that at that era, and long before the Norman power was established
in Britain, the number of churches and chapels conjointly was pro-
bably greater in proportion to the population than it actually is at
the present day. It were a bootless task even to indulge a conjec-
ture on the origin of these Saxon churches, which were built in a
dark age, and of which their pious founders have left us no memo-
rial But it is evident that the whole number of churches recorded
in the Norman Survey forms but a small proportion of those that
existed before the Conquest Indeed, the whole number noticed in
the Survey, for the entire kingdom, amounts to a few more than
1,700, a return notoriously incorrect had it been an object of the
Survey to ascertain the number of churches throughout the kingdom.
It is more than probable, therefore, that in this and in some other
parts of the kingdom, the number of smtUl edifices dedicated to
divine worship was iax more considerable than has hitherto been
supposed. Indeed, Sherburne, in the wapentake of Barkstonash, in
the West Riding of Yorkshire, was the residence of the Saxon Arch-
bishops of York, who had a palace here, bestowed upon the see of
York by Athebtan, with a considerable part of the town, and during
the residence of so many metropolitans there, in the Saxon times, it
is to be presumed that many, both churches and chapels, were erected
in this part of Yorkshire, of which no record was preserved.
The church at Sherburne was a Saxon church, and, as far as can
be ascertained in point of architecture, it is purely Saxon, and
believed to be the work of some one of the first archbishops who
became possessed of the place. The nave is magnificent, the columns
massy, yet tall and graceful This, be it remembered, was a Saxon
metropolitan church ; but, besides this edifice, there was a detached
chapel, as appears by the ruins, from which was formerly dug up the
head of a very rich and elegant cross. It may have been the site of
the primitive church, or one of the secclesiolae or capellse of the
Survey, which are sometimes inddentcUly mentioned as subordinate
to the ecclesise. '* Ibi aecclesia et alia capella " is sometimes part of
the description of places in Domesday. But the greater part of the
Saxon churches were of a meaner structure, and all the earliest
specimens of Saxon churches, it is supposed, were constructed of
timber. The first cathedral at York was a wooden structure. But
there is little doubt that the use of stone was introduced in the con-
17 — 2
26o Late Anglo-Saxon Antiquities.
stniction of the later Saxon churches; otherwise we should have
found more instances than cm in Domesday of a church built of
wood. The only example of a church so constructed, to be met with
in Domesday, is Bc^eland, in Yorkshirei *' Ibi presbiter et ecdesia
lignea." [See Note 29.]
We learn from William of Malmesbury that in the year 1017 the
Danish kin^ Canute, who became also King of England, gave
sufficient evidence of his zed in the cause of Christianity, not merely
by repairing the monasteries that had been destroyed by his Pagan
countrymen, the Danes, in the late wars, but by buUHng and endowing
churches. His first system of ecdesiastical laws contains twenty-six
canons, of which the four first enlaige and secure the protection of
the church, or its rights of sanctuary. But the third of these cimons,
which divides churches into four classes, sufficiently demonstrates
that in his time these sacred edifices must have amounted to a laige
number. The mulct for violating the protection of a cathedral was
five pounds, of a middling church one hundred and twenty shillings,
of a lesser church, that hath a burying place, sixty shillingSi of a
country church, without a burying place, thirty shillings ; and I can-
not resist noticing the following law as showing thiU, even in the
eleventh century, idolatry still prevailed in this island *' We strictly
prohibit all heathenism, that is, the worship of idols ot heathen gods,
the sun, moon, fire, rivers, fountains, rocks, or trees of any kind; the
practice of witchcraft, or committing murder by magic, or firebrands,
or any other infernal tricks." In the reign of Edward the Confessor,
so often alluded to in Domesday, there must have been a great
increase of what were strictly denominated parish churches, it being
asserted in one of the laws ascribed to that king, that in many places
there were three or four churches, where in former times there was
but one.
But without expatiating on the ecclesiastical state of the kingdom
at large, I wish more immediately to invite the attention of your
readers in general, but especially of such Yorkshire antiquaries as I
know are in the habit of perusing your time-honoured periodical, to
this singular circumstance, that m one wapentake (Skyrack) there
should be thirty places recorded, in which mention is made of a
church. I will take only such places in that wapentake having a
church at the period of £)!omesday, as belonged to Ilbert de Laci, and
to those of your readers who may not have access to the volume
itself the list subjoined may not be unacceptable :
Aoeuurde
Badesuurde
Baraebi
Bartone
Cherca
Cherchebi
eod'ia pVr
eocl'ia pb'r
ecd'ia pb'r
ecd^ pb'r
pb'r eccl'ia
ecd'ia pb'r
Churches in th& Domesday Survey. 261
Chipeach
Cipetiin
Coietun
Damintooe
Ennesliale
Ferestaoe
Fristone
Gereford
Ledestane
Quddale
Rie .
Saxtnn -
Smedettine
SuiUictun
Tateshalle
Wilmeresleui
eod'ia pb'r
eccl*ia pb'r
eod'ia
ecd'ia
ecd'ia pVr
ecd'ia pb*r
ecd'ia pb'r
ecd'ia pb'r
pb*r ecd'ia
pbV ecd'ia
ecd'ia pb'r
pb'r ecd'ia
ecd'ia.
pb'r ecd'ia
ecd'ia
ecd'ia pb'r
ecd'ia pb'r
ecd'ia pb'r
pb'r ecd'ia
ecd'ia pb'r
ecd'ia
ecd'ia pb'r
ecd'ia pb'r
In addition to the above named places (the property of the great
Norman lord, Ilbert de Lacy), there were the following places in the
same wapentake, which, in the '' Domesday Survey," are recorded as
having churches :
Bodetone .... pb'r ecd'ia
Bradeuadle -
Coningesbnrg
Hedfeld
Illidda
Sandale
Torp
of which the first and fifth belonged to William de Perci, the second^
third, and sixth, to William de Warenne, and the fourth and last to
Robert Malet. It appears, therefore, that out of about thirty churches
in this wapentake, twenty-three formed part of the Lacy fee, though
it must be borne in mind that the advowson of the living did not
always follow the manor. It is remarkable that of the two great
houses which for generations held the sway over so great a part of
the West Riding of Yorkshire — viz., the Warren and Lacy families,
the former should, at the period of Domesday, hold but three places
with churches, while the Lacy family held twenty-eight places with
churches attached to them, and it is still more remarkable that of
these twenty-eight churches, twenty-three should be in the Skyrack
wapentake.
In the parish of Batley, in the Morley wapentake, there was a
church and presbyter in the time of Domesday, and the two Saxon
lords, Dunstan and Stainulf, were disseized of their possessions here,
in order to make way for Ilbert de Lacy. In Morley also there was
a church ; and the same Dunstan was here also superseded by Ilbert
de Lacy.*
* The author of the " History of Morley " has mistaken the sense of Domesday,
by erroneously interpreting the passage *' Ilb't' h't " " Ilbertus habnit," instead of
" habet"
262 Late Anglo-Saxon Antiqutties.
It seems by another passage in Domesday relating to-Morley,
under the head of '' Claims of the West Riding," that ^ according to
the verdict of the men of Morelege (Morley) wapentake, concerning
the church of St. Mary, which is in Morley wood, the king has a
moiety of the three festivals of St Mai^s, which belongs to Wake-
field. Ilbezt and the priests who serve the church have ^ the rest"
The fiunily of Ilbert de I.Acy was of Norman origin, and he himself
came in the train of the Conqueror. To this fiEunily this district owes
the foundation of most of its ancient churches. We read of them,
too, as being the founders of three several religious houses at Nostel,
Pontefract^ and Kirk^tall
Dr. Whitaker supposes that the church at Wakefield, at the time
of Domesday, was not one of the original Saxon churches, of which,
in the hundred of Morley, there were only two, namely, Morley
itself, the hundred church, and Dewsbury. I shall not, in the
present paper, undertake to combat this opinion, as it would occupy
too much of your pages ; but it cannot admit of a doubt that a
division of offerings was not unfrequently resorted to in the later
Saxon times, at the foundation of new parishes. If a Thane erected
on his own bocland (/'^., freehold or charter land) a church, having a
cemetery or place of burial, he was allowed to subtract one-third
part of his tithes from the mother church, and bestow them upon his
own clerk.
It seems from this ecclesiastical ordinance (and, indeed, it is so
recorded) that many country churches were built in such situations
as appeared to their pious founders to stand most in need of them,
of a more humble description, and without the appendage of a bury-
ing ground. It is probable that to many of the manor-houses of the
Siucon lords an oratory was attached, and afterwards accommodation
found for the vassals and dependents of such lords. As population
increased, a church of a larger size was built ; though this, perhaps,
in the first instance, was no more than a single nave and a choir, and
the officiating presbyter supported chiefly by the liberality of the lord
of the manor. How many of these ecclesiolae or capella were in
existence in the Saxon times will probably never be ascertained ; but
the very names of many places mentioned in Domesday, without any
mention of any church in that venerable record, sufficiently show
that, either at that or some former period, places of worship did there
exist. There are five places of the name of Ch^rchebi menrioned in
Domesday in the county of York, to not one of which is there any
church assigned at the time of the conquest There are also in this
county ten places of the name of Ch/rchebi enumerated in Domes-
day, which have no mention either of eccPia or pb'r attached to
them ; of this number eight are in the West Riding. Can it be
doubted that these names point out to the existence of a church or
chapel at some period ? One would expect in a place called Santa-
Churches in the Domesday Survey. 263
cherche, in the West Riding of Yorkshire, that a church would be
included in the Domesday description ; but there is not any allusion
to it At Whitkirk, in this riding, where we know that a church did
exist not long after the Conquest, yet it is not mentioned in Domes-
day.
The discovery of a Saxon wheel cross among the Roman remains
of Burghdurum, near Adel, in the West Riding, also plainly indicates
the exbtence of a place of Christian worship there in the Saxon
period ; yet, though Adel is mentioned as well as Burhdurum in
Domesday, no church is recorded as in existence at that time. We
must not, therefore, conclude, because we find an omission of a place
of worship in a survey designed for other purposes than that of
recording the number of ecclesiastical edifices, that none such ever
existed. I might also mention the various towns in Domesday
named Prestone, or Preste-tune, without any church.
There was a capella at Hertshead in the West Riding, known to
have existed at the time when the living of Dewsbury was granted by
the second Earl Warren to the priory of Lewes, about the year 1 120.
The absence of all mention of such chapel in the Domesday account
of the place b no proof of the non-existence of such chapel before
the time of Domesday. The base of a genuine Saxon cross, still in
existence at that place, affords presumptive evidence that Christianity
had shed its light here in Saxon times, and subsequently led to the
erection of a chapel The marks of crosses on some tiles found in
the ruins of the Roman towns would seem to warrant a suspicion
that in some instances such chapels existed before the final evacua-
tion of this island by the Roman armies. In the various excavations
that have at sundry times been made on the site of the ancient
Cambodunum in the neighbourhood of Huddersfield, tiles have been
thrown up that had very distinct impressions of the cross on their
surface, perhaps only a single cruciform figure, entirely disconnected
from all other figures, and such as could not have been impressed
for the sake of ornament They were dug up not far from some
others bearing this inscription, COH IIII BRE. Now it appears
that at the period when this latter inscription was made, the Christian
religion had extended itself through most, if not all, the Roman
settlements ; and it appears to me no improbable supposition that,
on the site of this Roman town, the first Christian edifice, how mean
soever it might be, was planted in this part of Yorkshire. The
progress of the Roman arms, though without any intention of theirs,
was made the instrument, under Providence, of promoting the
progress of the Gospel, by opening a freer and less interrupted inter-
course over the whole country. The arrival of the Saxons in Britain,
being all heathens, led to the temporary overthrow of most, if not all,
tiie British churches. At length, however, these Tagan invaders were
themselves converted, and they, in their turn, became church builders.
264 Late Anglo-Saxon Antiquities.
The number of these Saxon churches, at the period of the Norman
conquest, was much greater than is generally supposed ; and when we
find that in one wapentake alone (Skyrack) thirty such churches are
recorded in Domesday, we may draw some mferencewhat the number
must have been in other more populous and more civilized districts.
Yours, etc J. K. Walker, M.D.
On the Number of Anglo-Saxon Churches.
1844, /Wf 7.,/^. 585.591.]
In a former paper I was anxious to show, from the evidence of the
Domesday Survey, that at the date of that venerable document the
number of places of worship, by whatever name they were designated,
whether churches or chapels or oratories, was far greater than the
examination of die returns of the Inquisitors would lead us to believe.
I was led to this conclusion from observing the very great number of
places that are to be found in Domesday, in different counties, which
have the syllable chirche, chirce, dree, cherche, etc., prefixed, yet
have no mention of the existence of any church in the Survey. With
respect to many of these, it is more than probable that they were
destroyed by the ravages of the Danish invaders, who, being pagans
as well as savages, spared neither church nor cloister. But it could
not be the case with all ; for in the days of King Canute, not many
years before the date of Domesday, many new churches were built,
and so great was his zeal in the cause of Christianity, that he framed
a system of ecclesiastical laws containing twenty-six canons, of which
the first four enlarge and secure the protection of the Church. At
the period of the landing of the Duke of Normandy, the number of
new erections dedicated to Divine worship had prodigiously increased,
and the numbers both of the secular and regular clergy had increased,
and their possessions still more. But, according to the Saxon laws,
churches were ranged into three orders :
ist The ealdan mynstre, or mother church.
2nd. The church having a legerstowe, or place of burial
3rd The feld cyric, field kirk, or chapel without a cemetery.
In the '' Leges Eadgari," par. 2, the word " ealdan ^ mynstre appears
sometimes to mean the cathedral church ; but more generally applies
to those churches of ancient erection to which Hikes were due, such
as occur in several parts of the Domesday Survey. But, besides
these, there were in the infancy of Christianity in this bland struc-
tures of a smaller kind, sufficient, perhaps, for the early converts, in
the then thinly populated state of the country. We know that this
was actually the case from the authority of the venerable Bede, who
wrote in the early part of the eighth century, and who, after informing
us that Paulinus was diligently employed, under the auspices of
Edwyn, in preaching and baptizing throughout the provinces of
The Number of Anglo-Saxon Churches. 265
Deira and Bemicia, and that he usually resorted to the banks of
rivers for the convenience of baptizing, proceeds to say, " Nondum
enim oratoria vel baptisteria in ipso exordio nascentis ibi ecclesise
poterant aedificari ; attamen in Campodono, ubi tunc villa r^ia erat,
fecit basilicam " (iL 14). From this passage we learn that, about the
year 625, Paulinus established a basilica in Campodono, which, except
the church of York, was the only place of worship in the Northumbrian
kingdom in his day ; but, at the time Bede wrote his history, more
than a century had elapsed since Paulinus preached, and during that
time both oratories, and churches, and chapels had increased.
Paulinus,* it is true, after the fall of the great King Edvrin, was
obliged to abandon his flock, but shortly afterwards a successor of
no less piety and learning was raised up in the person of Aidan, who
was appointed Bishop of Lindisfarne or Holy Island. By the labours
of Aidan and many other pious missionaries, the Northumbrians
were soon recalled from their apostasy, and, unless many other
oratories and baptisteries had been founded since the time of
Paulinus, where would have been the propriety of the expression not
as yet (nondum) were they ablet to erect oratories and Inptisteries.
But during the three succeeding centuries, and especially from the
beginning of the tenth to the middle of the eleventh century, vast
sums were raised for the erection of cathedrals, monasteries, and
churches in all parts of England, so that we are told by one writer
that, at the death of Edward the Confessor, a third of the lands of
England were devoted to religious purposes, and, as such, exempted
from all taxes, and for the most part even from military services.^
Sir Henry Spelman, though well acquainted with the Domesday
Survey, seems to have adopted the authority of Sprott, who lived
about 1274, and who, speaking of William the Conqueror, says,
*' Fecit etiam totam Angliam describi, quantum terrae quis baronum
possedit et quot feodatos et milites, quot carucatos et villanos,
quotque ecclesiarum dignitates. Et repertum fuit primo de summi
Ecclesiarum XLV. M. XI." So that here we have two authorities,
one that of Sprott's Chronicle, which asserts that at the time of the
formation of the Domesday Survey there were found to be no less
ihdXi forty-five thousand and eiewn parish churches within the kingdom^
* In a former paper I enumerated the churches in the wapentakes of Aebrigg
and Morley, included in the Domesday Survey. The church of Dewsbury is one
of these, and is regarded as the parent of most of the early churches afterwards
erected. The following inscription is placed on a cross, which at present stands
at the east end of the chancel, on the outside of the church : " Paulinus hie prae-
dicavit et celebravit, a. d. 627." This is however, not the identical Saxon wheel
cross, but a facsimile of it, made, probably, from Camden's traditionary copy. It
is probable that basilicse or oratories and small wood-built structures were erected
by Paulinus in some places, and crosses only in others. The site of these crosses,
however, was afterwards chosen for the erection of churches.
f Literally, "could not be erected as yet in the infancy of the Church,'* etc.
X Spelman, " Gloss.,'* p. 396.
i266 Late Anglo-Saxon Antiquities.
while the whole number actually noticed in the Survey itself amounts
to a few more than xyoa Possibly Sprott's account may be very
erroneous, and the number of churches given in his Chronicle far
too great ; but the Domesday Survey is certainly not to be considered
as in all respects a correct record of the whole number of churches
existing about the time of the Conquest This, indeed, is the
opinion of Sir Henry Ellis, who, in his general introduction to
Domesday, states, *' that unexceptionable evidence has been adduced
of the existence of one church in Kent, and of several others in
Northamptonshire, which certainly are not noticed in the Survey;
and in Oxfordshire no notice whatever is taken of the church of
Dorchester, although the seat of a bishoprick had been removed
from it but a short time before the taking of the Survey."
That there must have been a very great increase of churches m the
reign of Edward the Confessor, is evident from one of the laws
ascribed to that king, wherein it is asserted that in many places there
were three or four churches, where, in former times, there was but
one. I have already mentioned that, at the death of the Confessor, a
large proportion of the wealth of England was devoted to ecclesiastical
purposes.* This was well known to the Norman Conqueror, and
soon after he was seated in the throne of England he seems to have
formed the design of depriving the most eminent of the English
clergy of their emoluments and dignities in the Church, and of
conferring them on his countrymen, or upon persons on whose
loyalty he could depend It seemed a matter of small consequence
to him what number of churches there were in England, unless it
could be shown that some substantial endowment was annexed.
The man that could, as is commonly reported, destroy thirty-six
churches, in order to enlarge the New Forest in Hampshire, has not
much claim to our respect as a benefactor to the Church. It was
the landed property of the clergy upon which his eyes were fixed,
and this is the reason that all those churches and other religious
edifices, to which no glebe of any quantity was attached, are either
entirely omitted, or at all events mentioned incidentally^ or for some
object that might seem of consequence at the time of the entry. It
* We are told, moreover, that at this period prodigious sums were expended ia
the purchase of relics, that the roads between England and Rome were so crowded
with pilerims, that the very tolls they paid were objects of importance to the
princes through whose territories they passed ; and very few Englishmen imagined
they could get to heaven without paying this compliment to St. Peter, who kept
the keys of the celestial re^ons. The Pope and Roman clergy carried on a veiy
lucrative traflBc in relics, of which they never wanted inexhaustible stores — ^kings,
princes, and wealthy prelates purchased pieces of the cross, or whole legs and arms
of apostles ; while others were obliged to be contented with the toes and fingers
of inferior saints. Agelnoth, Archbishop of Canterbury, when he was at Rome,
A.D. I02I, purchased from the Pope an arm of St. Augustin for one hundred
talents, or six thousand pounds* weight of silver, and one talent, or sixty pounds'
weight of gold. VttU Henry, " Hist, of Britain," vol. iii., p. 296.
The Number of Anglo-Saxon Churches. 267
is clear then that we can draw no conclusion from Domesday of the
number of parish churches, still less of the chapels and oratories, and
other religious endowments that we read of in the Saxon times.
At the end of the enumeration of the lands of Tovi, in Norfolk,
Domesday, tom. iL, foL 265, it is said, " Om's eccl'e s't in p'tio c'
maneriis," yet we do not find that one of all these churches is
separately entered
We find often enough the words, " Ibi secclesia ;j Presbyter," but
seldom without some endowment, sometimes in land, as €,g. a
certain number of hides or carucates, with so many villani, etc, so
that the first object appears to be a return of the landed property and
its appendages, not the number of the churches, except when con-
nected with the land There are exceptions, I admit, but not such
as to invalidate the general rule. In some counties, indeed, as
Somerset, Devon, and Cornwall, and some few others, if the account
in Domesday is to be relied upon, there were scarcely any parish
churches. In Dorsetshire the number is not great The same may
be said of some other counties; but is it to be believed that no
places of worship existed in these parts? Is it probable that the
Anglo-Saxons, who, to their honour be it spoken, sent missionaries
abroad to spread the consolations of Christianity among their Con-
tinental ancestors and the neighbouring nations, would make no
spiritual provision for its introduction at home ? There is reason to
believe that in those very counties where there is hardly any notice
of a church in Domesday, such places of worship did exist in times
anterior to the Saxon invasion ; for we have accounts of tombs and
shrines of British saints, which show the existence of Christian places
of worship, when those countries were occupied by the ancient
Britons. Camden tells us, that near Leskerd was a church formally
called S. Guevir (which in British signifies a physician) ; where, as
Asser tells us, King Alfred, while he was in the midst of his
devotions, recovered of a fit of sickness. Other instances of a similar
kind are mentioned by Camden, tending to show that Christianity
flourbhed in very early times in these very counties, which, according
to Domesday, have scarcely any church at alL In short, this part of
the kingdom was famous for its veneration of Irish saints, as well as
their own, insomuch that between both there was hardly a town but
was consecrated to some one of them. The little village of St.
Burien's was formerly called *' Eglis Buriens," Le, church of Buriand,
a certain Irish saint ; and it is afterwards stated that King Athelstan
built a church here, and, unless it was afterwards destroyed by the
Danes, it seems improbable that it should not be in existence in the
Conqueror's time.
In the Lansdowne MSS. there is a charter of liberties conferred
by Athelstan to the church and town of Beverley. I find no mention
in Domesday of any such church, which (if this charter is genuine)
268 Lat€ Anglo-SaxoH Antiquities.
must, one would think, have been standing at the period of the
Survey. If thb charter is to be relied upon, Athelstan further
endowed the church with sac and soc and thol and theim, and
granted a perpetual college of secular canons, consisting of seven
priests, to celebrate masses and perform the rites of divine service in
the church ; and Dugdale teUs us that the right of sanctuary was then
first vested in the church of St John by the pious munificence of
Athelstan, and a fridstol,* or chair of peace, was placed near the
altar, as an emblem of protection to the refugee.
If I do not greatly mistake, the task would be no very difficult one
to discover many more such instances of omission of churches in
Domesday, some perhaps from carelessness, others designedly, either
from the motive I have already stated, or to answer some general
scheme of policy, which the critical position of the Conqueror might
render expedient Had either one or the other of the two words
Ecclesia or Presbyter been annexed to the name of the towns I have
alluded to, we might have redded it as sufficient evidence of a then
existing church, for it is possible that the officers of the Exchequer,
who abridged the returns, might consider the single entry of Presbyter
as, in most cases, implying the existence of a (£urch. Such indeed
we find to be the case in Leicestershire, where we meet with an
enumeration of Presbyteri at no less than forty-one places in that
county, yet it is only in the town of Leicester that we find the word
Ecclesia used.
There is another circumstance too which I find it difficult to
explain in the Survey relating to the tithes of churches and ciicset
I have already alluded to the ecclesiastical laws of Canute, in which
are enumerated all the dues payable to the clergy, as tithes of com
and cattle, Rome scot, church scot, and the payment of them
secured by various penalties, etc One would have imagined that
the support he had met with from the see of Rome would have
induced the Conqueror so far to preserve the appearance, at least, if
not the reality, of respect to the church, as to cause inquiry to be
made on the liabilities of the land to the church ; not a word of it is
mentioned in the instructions to the Inquisitors. They were ordered
to inquire into the name of the place, who held it in the time of
King Edward, who was the present possessor, how many hides in the
manor, how many canicates in demesne, how many homagers, how
many villans, how many cotarii, how many servi, what freemen, how
many tenants in socag^ what quantity of wood^ how mudi meadow
* Camden has presenred the following inscription, said to have been engraven
on the original fridstol: "Haec sedes lapidea Freedstool didtur; Lt,^ Pads
Cathedra, ad quam reus fugiendo perveniens omnimodam habet securitatem."
A statute of Edward II. provided, that *'so long as the criminals be in the
church, they shall be supphed with the necessaries of life," and be permitted
" exire libere pro obscaeno pondere depouendo."
The Number of Anglo-Saxon Churches. 269
and pasture, what mills and fish ponds, how much added or taken
away^ what the gross value in King Edward's time, what the present
value, and how much each fireeman or socman had or has. Such
are the exact terms of the Inquisition. Historians however, it must
be confessed, do not entirely agree respecting the nature of the
returns required ; some say a return was ordered to be made, '* quot
animalia," others take no notice whatever of any return of live stock.
The writer of the Saxon Chronicle coolly tells us, that not a hyde, or
yardland, not an ox, cow, or hog were omitted in the census ; and
Brompton even adds, *^quot ecclesue parochiales." But it is more
than probable that all these and other variations were suggested by a
partial examination of the returns. Such is the opinion of the ablest
writers. The Saxon Chronicle does indeed assert that King William
permitted an account to be taken of the lands of the archbishops,
diocesan bishops, and abbots ; but those who trace the policy of the
Concjueror, the speedy deposition of these prelates, and the sub-
stitution of foreigners in their place, may perhaps not give him much
credit for this concession.
One would imagine, from the slight mention of tithes in the
survey, that all such churches as were unendowed with land must
have derived their support entirely by voluntary oblations, or by
church scot or masses. In six counties the word ''decimss" is not
so much as once mentioned, and in none are tithes introduced
except incidentally; yet the payment of tithes is several times
enjoined in the Saxon laws, and it is expressly forbidden* that die
clergy of one parish should entice the parishioners of another for the
sake of their tithes. It should seem that the lay owner was at
liberty to select such church as he preferred, and the consecration of
tithes made to that church was the ordinary practice. By the
testimony of the two shires of Nottingham and Derby, *' De Stori
antecessore Walterii de Aincurt d'nt q'd sine alicuj' licentia potuit
facere sibi eccl'am in sua terra "] in sua soca;} suam decimam
mitUrt q* vellet^ In another place we find the tithe of a ruined
church transferred to the priest of another parish. It seems that
firom 5 to 20 acres formed the usual extent of what was to support
the church.
There is one entry in Berkshire both of the value of the dues of
the church as well as the tithes, but they were held of the Crown,
and a certain quantity of land is also mentioned In Suffolk, under
Tomai, we have mention made of a church in King Edward's time
of one carucate of land, of which Hugo de Montfort has twenty-three
acres, which he revokes in favour of a certain chapel, which four
brothers, fireemen of Hugo, erected on their own land near the
cemetery of the mother dhurch ; and these four brothers were in-
* In the Liber Legum Ecclesiasticanim, printed ia Wilkins' " Concilia," vol. t.,
p. 265,»dated 994.
2 JO Late Anglo-Saxon Antiquities,
habitants of the parish of the mother church, which was insufficient
to accommodate the whole parish. One half of the burial dues be-
longed to the church, as well as a fourth part of other offerings ; but
whether the chapel had been consecrated or not the hundreid were
unable to say. Here the chapel was built near ihe cemetery of the
mother church ; but whether divine service was performed in it the
same manner as the mother church, or whether one or more priests
resided in the parish, is not said. There was a well-known Saxon
bw, that if a thegn had erected a church in his boclande, having a
place of burial,* he was sure to give to the church one-third of his
own tenths ; if he had not a burial-place, he was to give what he chose
out of the nine parts. The practice of burying within cities com-
menced among die Saxons many ages before the Conquest Cuth-
bert, the eleventh bishop from Augustin, obtained leave to make
cemeteries within cities. The inference to be drawn from this is,
that before that time the custom was to inter the dead at a distance
from the living. I find in the county of Suffolk a church mentioned
to which nine freemen gave twenty acres for the good of their souls ;
but the soul sceat did not always consist of land -, but there can be
no doubt that the revenues of the church were materially indebted to
this custom, for it appears in all the wills. If the body was buried
out of the *' riht scire " or parish, the soul's sceat was to be paid to
the minister to which he belonged. It was to be alwa3rs given at the
open grave. So urgent was the duty of this practice felt, that several
of their gilds were formed for the purpose of providing a fund for
this purpose. But thb practice continued many ages i^er the Con-
quest, and whoever has perused the first volume of the '* Wills and
Inventories, etc, of the Northern Counties of England fix>m the
eleventh century downwards," as published under the auspices of the
Surtees Society, will find in every part of that very interesting volume
examples of testamentary liberality to the church. The first will (or
rather, as it has been with more propriety termed, a mortuary) con-
tains a list of the splendid robes, plate, etc., of William de Karilepho,
abbot of St Vincent's in Normandy, but, after the Conquest, conse-
crated Bishop of Durham in X082. These costly ornaments along
with other articles of value were bequeathed to the monks of Durham.
But I am trespassing upon your pages. There remains another
source of ecclesiastical revenue in the Saxon times, church dues,
drcset or chirchesset,t which was at first a quantity of com paid to the
* According to Scldcn, so essential was the circumstance of a cemetery to the
comtiiutwn of a church, that even as late as Henry III., in a case of quart imfedii^
the issue was not whether it wen a church or chapel^ but whether it had rignts of
baptism and sepulture.
t Fleta (lib. i, c. 47) thus defines chirchesset, "Certam mensnram bladi tritici
significat, quam quilibet olim sanctse ecclesise die S. Martini, tempore tam Britan-
norum quam Anglorum ;" and the Leges Inse say, *' Ciricsceatta reddita sint in
festo S. Martini : si quis hoc non compleat, sit reus 60 solidorum, et duo decuplo
reddat ipsum ciricsceattum/' etc.
The Number of Anglo-Saxon Churches, 271
priest on St Martin's day, as the first-fruits of the harvest It seems,
however, to have included, especially in later times, not only com
but poultry, or any other provision paid in kind to the religious. This
church scot in many cases constituted the principal support of many
of the clergy, and yet the sum total of the land which is returned as
subject to this pajrment is very insignificant There are not a dozen
names of places in the whole Survey where any such payment is men-
tioned. This seems unaccountable on any other supposition than
that these dues were too trivial to be recorded, or if returned by the
local commissioners were struck out for the sake of abridgment, or
as irrelevant and unnecessary matter. The jurors in numerous in-
stances framed returns more comprehensive than was required by the
king's precept, and in many instances there is reason to believe that
the Survey handed down to us was less circumstantial than the
original- returns, from which they were excerpted. And when it is
considered that, from the very nature of the questions propounded in
the king's precept, none but persons long resident in each district
could give accurate information, and that to Saxon proprietors the
most valuable portion of the returns was due, what more likely
than that in some more remote and less cultivated districts, where
the inhabitants were in a very rude and barbarous state, there should
be a difiSculty in many instances in finding persons competent to give
the requisite information ; and, admitting; that such qualified persons
were found, the Saxon tongue was so little cultivated by the Norman
scribes, that they were very likely to commit a mistake in translating
or in transcribing such returns. One such mistake I find in this
neighbourhood iti the name of a village, which in the Survey is
printed Heptone instead of Heatone, the letter a being changed'into
p. The village is placed in the proper place betwixt Leptone and
Dalton, and b now known by the name of Kirkheaton, a church
having been erected there subsequently by one of the Lades. Had
there not been in the Survey another village spelt Hoptone I should
have thought it possible that Heptone was a mispelling for Hopton,
another village -not very distant ; and there are other marks, if I
mistake not, of careless transcribing on the part of the Norman
scribes.
It has often been a subject of surprise that Halifax, which is the
capital of one of the largest and most populous parishes in the
kingdom, should not be named in Domesday when several other
vilk^es around it are enumerated, such as Eland, Ouram, Hipper-
holm, Stainland, Greetland, Fixby, Rastrick, etc What may, perhaps,
add to our surprise is the well-authenticated fact that a church at
Halifax is mentioned in existence not long after the Conquest, yet
after the completion of Domesday, and going under the name of a
rectory.* How, then, shall we account for the omission ? It was
• Vide Dr. Whitaker's "Loidis et Elmete," p. 331.
272 Late An^h-Saxon Antiquities.
quite impossible, bad sacb a town or even village as Hali&z existed
at the period of the Domesday Survey^ that the Inquisitors should
have overlooked it, seeing that so many of the circumjacent townships
are recorded The truth is that the term Halifiu or Hali fidch or
fiU| the holy forest (fi» fiu:h is an ancient name for fiirest) was
applied to the forest, in which there was an hermitage dedicated to
St John the Baptist, where, in fact, the parish church now stands:
In the a^ before the Conquest it was embosomed in woods, and
the sanctity in which the hermitage was held attracted a constant
influx of pilgrims from the surrounding districts. Camden's account
of Hali£uc tells us *' that at first it was a hermitage of very great
antiquity, and the church that now is built from, or rather added to^
a Aapel long since built, was consecrated, and dedicated to St John
the Baptist, who is styled by some ancients the first fisuher of hermits ;
and in which place, they pretend, was kept the real fiure of St John
the Baptist; hence was it named Halifax or holy fisu:e.'' Others
derive the word from the Norman word '^fax,** signifying hair, in
allusion to an idle fable, which, as it is on all hands regarded as a
monkish invention for mercenary purposes, I will not trouble your
readers with on this occasion. But it seems to me that neither of
these latter derivations is the true one, but that the name was given
to the place from the situation of the hermitage in a forest ; hence it
was called Hali fiu±* or sacer boscu&t It was situate in a dark and
solemn grove on the bank of a small rivulet, possibly fcnr the
convenience of baptizing the early Christian converts, and it would
have been difficult to £ive found in the whole district a place of
greater privacy and retirement, or (as the face of things then stood)
one better calculated for the purposes of devotion, such as was the
object of this hermitage. We have no account of the period when
the church or chapel built on the site of this hermitage was
consecrated, but it may have been used, and probably was us^ as a
place of divine worship before the Conquest It is more than
probable that the numb^ of chapels at the period of Domesday was
much greater than a perusal of that work would lead us to suspect
Where capelle are mentioned, it is generally in connection with some
church, but that they existed independently of any such connection
we may be sure from the incidental allusions made to such chapels.
In Norwich, for instance, it is stated that the inhabitants had forty-
three chapels. But we are not told how they were supported. It
must always be borne in mind that the churches of the Anglo-
* In Glossaria of Ducan^ and others I find the word "£iichia" mtetpreted
" sylva ex arboribus incseduu," that i^ a wild wood of unpraned trees, a nt site
for a hermitage or hermitory. Facbia is also translated Gallic^ futave.
t John de Sacro*bo8co, author of the Treatise de Sphserii, ii said to have been
bom in Halifax.
Dr. Whitaker derives the name of Halifax from Hali, and an old plural noun
fax, in Norman French denoting ^^kigh loays**
The Number of Anglo-Saxon Churches. 2 73
Saxons, especially in the earlier periods, were built of wood Of such
materials was the first church in Northumberland built, as well as the
one of Holy Island I am aware that many specimens of ancient
Saxon ecclesiastical architecture are still adduced in proof of the use
of stone masonry, but they appear chiefly in the instance of a few
parish churches which existed in Saxon times. But the number of
such b small when compared to the number of churches, few as they
are, that are recorded in Domesday. Of the great majority of
unrecorded chapels, oratories, hermitages, etc, existing at- or about
the period of Domesday, the trunks of trees from the surrounding
forest, or the turf, and occasionally, perhaps, such stone as might be
dug on the spot, constituted the whole materials of these humble yet
holy structures. [See Note 30.]
Yours, etc J. K. Walkbr, M.D.
Saxon Inscription in Leominster Church.
[1827, /Wf L,pp. 414, 415.]
In the quarto edition of Weever's *^ Funeral Monuments " [p. 584]
the following inscription is given, as communicated by Sir John Har-
topp,Bart, toWarburton, Somerset Herald, in Hackluyt's handwriting,
but having a few blanks supplied by a friend of Warburton.
It is introduced in Weever with the following preface by Hacklujrt :
*' Coppie of an inscription found by me John Hackluyte of Eaton*
in Herefordshire, uppon a brass plate on the wall of the south side
of the churche of Leominster in the said countie of Hereford, a.d.
1592. All the letters were cutt oute in brass, and traissed upon a
brasse plate, and fastened upon a timbere lette into the wall, and had
been washed over with white, at suche time the said churche had been
amended and cleaned"
CDJ^ne f^mefte fs&bopef h^jbe b^lian uppan t\j m^ne bypij 3 aet
My lotemost Others did build ttpon this my town, & at
Cyn^helmefpopbf, ;} CDebefpelhamftebe^ 3 L^cetpelb, *] Leaceajrep,
Kenelmsford and MeadsweUhamstede, and Lichfield, and Leicester,
;] IjJ^njhelmefpeopiSe, ;} Clj^nt, ] Cynjelmefhame, ;} ));^celcombe, *]
and Kenilworth, and Clint and Kenilsham, and Winchcombe, and
peoptSepopbbypis, ^ 8ut$tan, •] Cmjefceapipe, ] Dopn^^nftep, "j
Hereford, and Sutton, and Kenchester, and Westminster, and
)>epl5'amceaftep, ;} SnotJ^^jhame, *] papy3]>ic, 3 Ijlaepceartpe, -]
Verulam and Nottingham, and Warwick, and Gloucester, and
* Eaton is a hamlet of Leominster, where the Hackluyt family were seated, and
had considerable estates. — See Price's "History of Leominster," p. 142. This
John was the author of the Voyages.
t Chelmsford, I presume, where was a British station, which Plautius took. —
Sir R. C. Hoare's *< Giraldus," I. xci.
X Peterborough.
VOL, VI. 18
274 Late Anglo-Saxon Antiquities.
ScpaD^pojibh^pij, ;j Beopclea^i "J Deotifbypj, ;j Runcopa^n, ^ Tome-
Stanford and Berkeley, and Tewkesbur}', and Runcorn, and Tarn-
air)»eopt$e, "] €abefb;^pi^ ;} Semppinphame, "j LyncyleDebypijf 1
worth and Eadesbury, and Sempringham, and Lincoln and
C|>ychelmclrele]^, -j OpFaii^elafSunje. — Cpijt lupobe mynef xylp, ^ J«f
Cwichelmesley, and Offchurdi. Christ loved me, and was
ni;^ne pyht pijtefta helme, selc ic hebbe j^lupobe Cpift, "3 pitoblice
my most righteous defence, alwajrs I have loved Christ, and for
hif lufian myne 8elanbif ic popfecan, fofSlic m^e C^njefte lan'd
his love my lands I forsook [or gavel but my Kingland*
^ aelc m^ne Kyn^elmefj^eoptSe ic ne fop^ypan Dif ic earn Cpiirif.
and also my Kenel worth I do not forgive [i>.,givel I am Christ's.
C^^elme "] Reynelmebalb b^ ^ myne majopme set Cl;^toiL
Kynelm and Reynelmbald is my kinsman at Clynton.
Against this inscription two objections have been made; First,
that inscriptions on brass plates are anachronical t To this objec-
tion one reply only is necessary. ''Habetur et hodie Welliae in
sedibus D. Thomas Hugonis equitis aurati, iabtila €Knea^ columns^
Glastoniensis ecclesiae olim affixa \ cui indsum legitur : Atmo post
passionem Domini xxvi, duodecim sancH (ex quUms Joseph ab Arima-
thia primus erai) hue venerunt^ qui ecdesiam hujus regniprimam in hoc
loco construxerunty etc^ etc, — ''Usserii Britannicanim Ecclesiarum An-
tiquitates,'' p. 9, edit fol. 1698.
The second objection is that the inscription is a forgery by War-
burton ; but Renebald is made ancestor of the Clinton fomily by
Vincent^ who died before Warburton was bom; and Renebald is
further named as such in a pedigree written in the end of the seven-
teenth century, and to be found in the Harleian MS.| Na 4029,
fol. 65.
The object of this communication is to solicit from your learned
correspondents the most probable emendations of errors, which I
conceive to have been committed by Warburton's friend in supplying
the lacunce of Hackluyt's copy.
The errors appear to me to be these, which follow :
Ic foprecan. — This is an infinitive mood, made to follow the nomi-
native Ic The same objection applies to Ic ne popj^pan.
Nir, which follows popSh^Di is non est; and is apparently a wrong
word introduced.
Reynelmebalb bytS f^ (f.^., R^^mbcUdX ^ tr) is a pleonasm, and
b^t$ is apparently some word connected with Reynehnebald : possibly
2it$ ; for Githa^ or Giih^ was the name of a brother of King Harold.
* Adjacent to Leominster. t It is a mistake of Mr. Letheullier.
X Price (103) has converted Rynelmbald into Kynelmhald, because there is an
adjacent village called Kimbohon ; but he knew of no other copy of the inscrip-
tion tlian Weaver's, and the adjunct ai Ciimont removes all application to Atiw-
bolton.
Saxon Inscription in Leominster Church. 275
— We have in Domesday a Wido de Reynbudcurt ; but this is out
of the question, Reynbudcurt implying only R^inbald's court, and
the name of Reynelmebald's residence could not be that by which
he himself was designated
Yours, etc. & Y. E.
[1827, Part L,pp. 503, 504.1
Your Saxon readers are much obliged to you and your correspon-
dent '* S. Y. £." for the republication of the inscription found on the
south wall of Leominster Church. Nothing can be more groundless
than the objections raised against the authenticity of this inscription ;
nor does it require the support of a similar tablet of brass formerly
i^xed to a column of the Abbey Church at Glastonbury, as noticed
by Usher (" Antiquitates," p. 9, ed. 1698). The age of the latter is
uncertain ; and it records an event which, if true, has been so blended
with the marvellous and the superstitious, as to throw an air of suspicion
over the whole story. The facts recorded in the Leominster inscrip-
tion are not of this nature ; and whether preserved in brass or stone^
or in any other Way, is a point of no great importance ; but the pro-
bability is, that the original inscription being partly decayed, or in
danger of destruction, was from its historical importance deemed
worthy of being renewed in brass at a later period. The value of the
information contained in it consists in this : that it is contemporary.
Of this there is internal evidence. The writer, if we may so call him,
speaks in the first person, and gives us the history of his family and
property. That family was of the royal race of Mercia; and the
property comprised most of the ancient fortresses and lands of the
Mercian kings. How much of this property is still vested in those
noble families, who are the representatives and descendants of the
Saxon kings of Mercia, his Grace the Duke of Newcastle, who is a
lineal descendant of the Rcmbalds of Clinton, may perhaps be capable
of ascertaining with the greatest facility, by tracing it either to the
Kenelms of Leominster, or to the Rembalds of Clinton, now Clent
in Staffordshire. With a view to the elucidation of these points, I
have ventured to give you, Mr. Urban, my interpretation of the topo-
graphy of the inscription, which differs in some instances from that of
your correspondent " S. Y. E." For example, Deotifbypij^ is there
translated Tewkesbury, as if the reading were Deocif bypi^ i whereas
I consider Deotirbypij to be the correct reading, and that Tutbury in
Staffordshire is intended — not Tewksbury in Gloucestershire. Here
we may remark, Mr. Urban, by the way, that in Staffordshire, as well
as in Oxfordshire and other counties, many traces are to be found of
the Celtic worship of Teutates, and other aboriginal deities, adopted
by our Saxon ancestors also before their conversion to Christianity,
which was not effectually and generally completed at so early a period
as some would persuade us. Hence Tutsbury and Tetbury or
18—2
276 Late Anglo-Saxon Antiquities,
Teut's-Bury, Teteworth or Teut's- Worth, Great and Little Tew, etc
But the further illustration of this curious subject I leave to Mr.
Bowles, from whom we may soon expect a considerable addition to
our topographical stores, in the '^ Parochial History of BremhilL" At
present I shall confine myself to the Leominster inscription, where
the places recorded I conceive to be these : Chelmsford, Peter-
borough,* Lichfield, Leicester, Kenelwonh, ClenI, Kenilsham,
Winchcombe^ Hereford, Sutton, Kenchester, Thomey, St. Alban's,
Nottingham, Warwick, Gloucester, Stamford, Berkeley, Tutbury,
Runcorn, Tamworth, Eddesbury, Sempringhate, Lincoln, Cuckamsley,
OfTchurch, Kingsland, Kenelworth, Clinton (the same with Clent
before mentioned), from which place, and not Glympton in Oxford-
shire, the noble family of Newcastle takes its name.
I will conclude with some remarks and corrections. For aelc read
aec, u€, eac, also^ eke ; hebbe is understood after popfecan ; for nif read
ml, " I will not give," etc. ; ^ may be considered an interpolation as
explanatory ""of byt$ ; for majopme read ma^opme. [See Note 31.]
Yours, eta J. I.
Ancient Tomb at Dewsbury, Yorkshire*
[1836, Arr 7/., >t^. 38,39.1
In the accompanying plate we give representations of two of the
most ancient tombs formed of stone, known to have existed in this
country.
The upper one is at Dewsbury in Yorkshire. That place is
remarkable as having been one of the earliest settlements of
Christianity in England ; a subject which has been ably and instruc-
tively discussed by the historian of South Yorkshire, in a memoir
published in the first volume of the " Collectanea Topographica et
Genealogica."
There is a woodcut of it in Whitaker*s " Loidis and Elmete;" but we
have reason to suppose that the present representation, drawn by Mr.
George Buckler, is far more accurate. Dr. Whitaker describes it as
" part of a Saxon tomb, shaped exactly like a common cottage house,
but with the tiles of the roof resembling feathers, and very artificially
laid over each other. At the entire end is cut in relievo a cross of a
very antique form. All the Saxon tombs which I have seen are
ridged more or less like this. It particularly resembles the tombs of
the monks assassinated by the Danes at Peterborough jt but what is
* In the original, Medeswelhamsiede, the ancient name of the place ; before
Burgh y Gildenburgh^ and Peterborough were introduced by the love of innovation.
t Of this there is an engraving, but audaciously improved^ in Gunton's " Church
of Peterborough," p. 243. A more accurate representation will be found in Carter's
'* Ancient Sculpture and Painting," Part I., p. 12. Its similarity to the Dewsbury
tomb consists in its being of the same shape, and formed of a single stone ; but
Ancient Tomb at Dewsbury^ Yorkshire. 277
still more remarkable, I am assured by a friend, that in the church of
San Paolo fuori li Muna, at Rome, he discovered a Roman sarco-
phagus of white marble, almost exactly resembling this, particularly
in the imbricated roof. Wilfrid, we know, brought artists from Italy,
and they undoubtedly wrought after Roman models; their own
architecture was nothing ebe than a debased Doric Of their
sculpture such as this tomb, we have much fewer remains."*
Together with this tomb some other very curious sculptures were
discovered of exceedingly early date, representing in relief figures of
Christ and the Apostles. They are represented in Whitaker's '* I^idis
and Elmete ;" and there is little doubt that they formed portions of a
cross, the memory of which was preserved by tradition, and alsa by
the rhymes of a village poet (See Mr. Hunter's essay before men-
tioned in the first volume of ''Collectanea Top. et GeneaL")
The second cut represents another tomb, which bears the appear-
ance of a somewhat later form than that of Dewsbury ; but seems
as it were the next gradation in point of style. The ridged roof and
the imitation of tiles are retained ; but the side is sculptured with an
arcade of columns and interlacing arches, in a style occasionally seen
in early Norman architecture. We are not certain whether this tomb
is still in existence ; for we find it was conveyed by Mr. Hasted,
historian of Kent, from the church of Fordwich to his private
residence at Canterbury ; and it is therefore not improbable that, since
his death, it may have fallen into ignorant hands, and have been
destroyed In any case, we are glad to have this opportunity of pre-
serving a representation of it, engraved from a drawing made exactly
sixty years ago by the celebrated Captain Grose ; because the small
vignette given in Hasted's work is very ill drawn and unsatisfactory.
The following is the account which Mr. Hasted has given of this
tomb, in his description of the church of Fordwich :
" In the west part of the body of this church, was placed a very
ancient stone shrine against the wall ; which having been removed
some years since, was cast out in die churchyard ; where being
soon likely to perish, by being exposed to the weather, it was
purchased by a gentleman [we presume Mr. Hasted himseljf?], and
brought to the precincts of the cathedral of Canterbury, where it now
lies." Should it still exist within those precincts, we would respectfully
suggest, that its great curiosity well entitles it to be placed within the
walls of the church itself! It is added that " It is one solid stone,
sculptured only on one side ; the back part having two hollows, as if
made to fasten it to the wall"
the roof is ornamented with scroll-work (altered into roses in square panels in
Gunton*8 plate), and in th6 front are six whole-length figures of the monks, or of
saints, under round-headed arches.
* **Loidis and Elmete,*' p. 301.
27^ Late Anglo-Saxon Antiquities.
Mr. Grose's drawing is accompanied by a section, and the follow-
ing very complete measurements :
Length, 5 feet 8 bcfaes.
Diameters of tlie oolnmis a} inc.
Brodth of intervals l{ —
Plinth at bottom \ —
Shaft of columns 8 —
Capitals ..« ... •«. ... 3^ -»
Height of arches 3^ —
Upoer moulding orer arches ... i^ —
Soue work* 8 —
Mouldings at the top a| —
He has also added this section of the top moulding.
We trust this notice will lead to some forther illustrations of our
earliest English tombs, which were unaccountably neglected by Mr.
Gough, whose *' Sepulchral Monuments" were arranged to begin
with the Conquest, though his collateral illustrations are generally,
throughout his great work, both difiuse and miscellaneous.
J. G. N.
Sun-dial at Bishopston Church, Sussex.
[1840^ Part IL^p. 496.]
The church of Bishopston, ca Sussex, the scene of the pastoral
labours and the burial place of the amiable Hurdis, presents many
points of interest to the architectural antiquary. The prevailing
characteristics of the Saxon style abound tluroughout the building.
The tower is remarkable for consisting of four stages or stories, each
stage being a little larger than the superincumbent one. A band of
corbels surrounds the top of the upper story, and serves as a cornice
for the support of a low obtuse steeple. The chancel exhibits a union
of the semicircular and pointed styles. The zigzag and saltire orna-
ments are chiefly used in the semicircular arches.
On a porch at the south side of the church is an antique sun-dial
(figured above). It is of stone, and contains, on its upper limb, a
cross and the word ^' EADRIC That this dial, as well as the church
itself, is of Saxon workmanship, there can be no doubt
As Bishopston was very early given to the see of Chichester, I was
induced to imagine that this Edric was one of the bishops of that see,
but, on referring to *' Dallaway," I find no such name. He may have
been one of the ancient vicars of the church. Perhaps some of your
correspondents can throw some light upon this curious relic of a for-
gotten age.
Yours, etc. Mark Antony Lower.
* Hasted*s vignette gives four rows of scales, or tiles ; hut we have greater con-
fidence in Captain Grose's drawing.
On the Brass of King E their ed the Elder. 279
On the Brass of King Ethelred the Elder in the Church
of Wimbome Minster ; with Some Remarks on the Time,
PLACE) AMD Manner of His Deatk*
[1865, Part IL^ pp. 708-715.]
The county of Dorset, amongst its numerous claims on the anti-
quary's notice, may boast of having afforded the rite of sepulture to
several of the West Saxon kings. In Sherborne Monastery were in-
terred the remains of Ethelbald [a.ix 861^ and Ethelbert [ad. 866],
brothers of Ethelred the Elder and the illustrious Alfred, and who
inherited the kingdom of Wessex in succession from their father
EthelwolC At Wareham, King Bertric, the immediate predecessor
of Egbert, had his last home ; there also the bleeding remains of the
murdered Edward found a temporary repose previous to their inter-
ment at Shaftesbury ; and here, in Cuthberga's monastery of Wim-
bome, which she had founded for the repose of her own soul, she
being one of the royal line, the warrior-king, whose monument now
engages our attention, slept by the side of that sainted lady, doubtless
in the odour of each other's sanctity, through many a long year of
strife and change, until the sacred relics of the latter were '^ translated
to the Est end of the High Altare/'t To complete this list of royal
interments, we notice lastly that '* King SifTerth killed himself, and his
body lies at Wimbome fX but no memorial marks the royal suicide's
grave.
On the north side of the altar, on the floor of the presbytery, is a
brass plate bearing an efligy and inscription to the memory of Ethel-
red, king of the West Saxons. He is represented of three-quarters
length, crowned, and robed, with the right hand laid on his breast,
the left holding a sceptre resting on his shoulder. Underneath is the
following inscription in Roman capitals :
IN HOC LOCO QVIBSCIT CORPVS Sn
BTHBLRBDI REGIS WEST SAXONVM MARTYRIS
QVI ANO' don' 873 23 DIB APRILIS PER MANVS
DACORVM PAGANORVM OCCVBVIT :
beneath this, a shield charged with a cross flory.
As the above inscription differs in some particulars from that which
is recorded by Leland and Camden, we subjoin their respective read-
ings. In the first place, Leland :
" S* Cuthberga was byried in the North side of the Presbyterie.
King Ethelrede was byried by her, whos Tumbe was lately repairid,
and a marble stone ther layid with an Image of a King in a Plate of
Brasse, with this inscription : ' In hoc loco quiescit corpvs S. Ethel-
* This paper was prepared for the Congress of the Archaeological Institute at
Dorchester, but in consequence of the author's absence it was not read,
t Leland's " Itinerary, ' vol. iii., p. 71. % Ang.-Sax. Chronicle, A. 962.
28o Late Anglo-Saxon Antiquities.
redi reg^ West-Saxonvm Martyris qvi A^ D^ 827 1^^ die ApL per
manvt Danorvm PagtUBonrm occvbvit***
Id the next place, Camden :
"King Ethelred, a right good and vertuous prince, brother of
Alfred, slain in the battel! at Wittingham against the Danes, lieth en-
terred in this church, upon whose tombe, which not long since hath
been repaired, this new inscription b to be read: 'In hoc loco
Svieseit corpvs S. Ethelredi regis West-Saxonvm Martyris qvi anoo
omini dccclxxii xxiii Aprilis per manvs Danorvm Paganorvm
occvbvit' '^t
With regard to the discrepancy here of date, we have no doubt
whatever that the numerals given by Leland, being so wide of all
authority, are merely a typographical error ; and that the same may
be affirmed of '* Danorvm " for *' Dacorvm," as we shall presently see.
Camden appears to follow Leland pretty closely in what he sajrs of the
recent repairs of the tomb ; also in the inscription, with the exception
of giving a corrected reading of the date: Rapin makes this state-
ment, that the brass plate with the inscription given by Camden was
taken away in*the Civil Wars ;{ whence we infer that the one now on
the floor is not the one which was there in Leland's time, and pufaaps
transcribed by him, but was substituted for it at some period subse-
quent to the Restoration.
It has been remarked that '* the plate bearing the inscription is of
a different metal from the effigy and escutcheon, which appears to be
of an earlier date:" §
Speed follows Camden, with the exception of the reading '* Daco-
rvm " for *' Danorvm,"|| and his transcript, with this correction, cor-
responds with the inscription as engraved on a brass plate that is
preserved in the library of the Minster ; and this, we doubt not, is the
original plate to which Leland refers, and which was torn away from
its matrix at the time alluded to by Rapin. The inscription on this
plate runs thus : '* in hoc loco qviescit corpvs sancti ethelredi
REGIS WEST-SAXONVM MARTYRIS QVI ANNO DOMINI 872 23DIEAPRIUS
PER MANVS DACORVM PAGANORVM OCCVBVIT."
It has been observed of this inscription that it is probably older
than the one on the floor, and moreover that it is engraved on a, dross
plate, whereas the other is on a cop>^r plate, which is pared away to
fit in between the effigy and the coat of arms.ir
* Leland's ** Itinerary," Hearoe edit. 1711.
t Camden's '' Britannia," bv Dr. Holland, 1610.
t ** Histonf of Enffland," ed. il. 173a, vol. i., p. 89.
§ Mr. Burkitt, in Journal of Briiish Archaological AssociaiUn^ 1S53, p. 364.
U ** History of Britain." Geoffrey of Monmouth calb Denmark '*Dacia," and
the natives '^Daci."
f The Rev. Peter HalL
On the Brass of King Ethelred the Elder. 28 1
A most singular statement in reference to this brass has been put
forth in a little work lately published,* viz., that
''The Brass of Ethelred was originally that of a Priest of the four-
teenth century, the cross being retained, but the robe etched out to
represent ermine, and the crown and sceptre inserted. The character
of the etching shows this to have been done in the middle of the
fifteenth century."
But the writer subsequently retracts this opinion, and admits that
the effigy has never been altered, and is probably of the date of the
fourteenth century.
With regard to the inscription, he states that ^ neither of the dates
is correct, and that the more modem of the two is not older than the
sixteenth and the other not older than the fifteenth century."
The effigy may be, and most probably is, the original one, but we
have shown that *' the more modem " inscription is of the seventeenth
century, and that ''the other'' is contemporary with Leland himself,
whose account of it may be referred to the year 1535, or thereabouts,
when " the tumbe was lately repairid," etc
In respect to the dates, we agree with the writer alluded to, that
neither the date a.d. 87 a nor a.d. 873 is the trae date of the event
recorded by the inscription.
All the old monkish chroniclers, except Higden, Ingulph of Croy-
land, and John of Wallingford, give the year a.ix 871 as that of King
Ethelred's death ; the two former placing it in a.d. 87 a, the latter in
A.D. 870 ; all of them agree that it occurred after Easter ; three only
specify the day of the month, viz. Florence of Worcester, Higden,
and John of Brompton, who assign to that event the 9th of May.
Most of them seem to have taken the Saxon Chronicle for their text-
book ; fi-om which we leam that the series of battles fought by Ethel-
red and his brother Alfi^d, culminating in the battle of MenhtnezxA
death of Ethelred, transpired in a.ix 871.
"After this battle there came a great army in the summer to
Reading. And after this, over Easter, King Ethelred died ; and he
reigned five years ; and his body lies at Wimbum Minster.'4
" Post banc autem pugnam venit magna quies (Somerlida) sestiva
ad Readingum. Deinde post Pascha decessit i£theredus rex."|
The word here rendered by " deinde " does not, we apprdiend,
strictly imply a regular succession of events ; if it does, the Easter of
A.D. 872 must obviously be intended. There is a certain ambiguity
in the phraseology of diese ancient chronicles which should make us
the more careful in our interpretation of them. "Deinde," and then,
(f./. after the battle of Meretune, and) after Easter, King Ethelred
died — the Easter of the same year in which those battles were fought,
* *■ History of Wimborne Min&ter," i86o» 8vo., anoo.: Bell and Daldy.
t Saxon Chronicle, translated by Giles : Bohn.
X Ibid,^ ed. Gibson, 1692.
282 Late Anglo-Saxon Antiquities,
viz. A.D. 871. By taking this vieir of the meaning of the passage,
we reconcile the statement of the Chronicle with the account of the
same transactions most graphically related by Asser, and perhaps
from particttlais comnwnicated by Alfred himself to his old friend
and tutor.
_ ** A.D. 871 • • « et eodem ammo post Pascha Adheredus rex . . .
viam universitatis adeuns in Winbumham monasterio sepaltus^ advcn-
tum Domini et primam cum jusds resurexionem expeciar.'^
Easter Day in this year falling on A|Mril i5th,t his death on the
ajrd would dierefore be a week after Easter in the year 871.
Considerable doubt has been exprened by historians as to the
identity of the place Mertiune. Sharon Turner enumerates Merton in
Surrey, Marden in Wilts, and Merton in Oxfordshire, each as having
probabilities in its fiivour ; whilst he himself, apparendy unconvincred,
^ ventures a new opinion ; that it was Morton in Berks;" % on grounds,
as it appears to us, of a very inconclusive character : and the same
may be said of the arguments adduced by Dr. Plot in support of the
claim of Merton in Oxfordshire % and of those by Mr. Britton for
Marden in Wilts.! Gibson, who seems to have suggested the three
former places, wisely left the question to be decided by those who
were versed in local antiquities. IT
There b a village in South Wilts, at the distance of fourteen miles
from Wimboroe, which seemed, in the opinion of the editor of
Hutchins's " Dorset,** to offer a solution of the knotty point After
adverting to the opinions previously broached, he goes on to say —
'^ There is every reason in the world to afiSrm that the battle in
which Ethelred lost his life was fought at Marten (Merden Gibson ;
Carte) formerly called Meretun ; a little village in the south part of
Wilts, where a range of fortifications extending more than a mile in
length are to be seen."**
We coincide with this view, though not professing to fortify our
position with the ''fortifications" of the learned historian. The
ancient orthography of the name of the place where the battle was
fought, is variously found thus: Meretune, Meretun, Meredune,
Merton, Merantune ; and its etymon is manifestly Men-ton (Angl.
Sax.), oppidum paludosum^ a town or village in a marsh or watery
place. This definition strictly applies to the village of Martin ;
moreover in ancient records the name is written Merton ; for instance.
King Edmund (circ 940) granted to the church of Mary and the
blessed St Dunstan of Glastonbury the manor of Domerham with
Martin (Merton) and Pedrington (Pentridge ?), one hundred hides, ft
* Asserts " AmuJs." t Ex inf. Professor A de Moigao.
X " History of the Ai^elo-Saxons," vol. ii., p. 44, note.
§ Plot's "History of Oxfordshirei ed. 1705, p. 343.
II '< Modem Wilts," p. 17. IT Saxon Chronicle, ed. 1692, note.
*• Hutchins's "History of Dorset," 2nd edit., vol. iii., p. 544.
f I* DugdAle's.''MonasUcon,"ed. 1655, vol. i., p. 15, and William of Malmesbury.
On the Brass of King Ethelred the Elder. 283
In documents relating to Cranbome Chase (temp. Edw. I.) the name
is written Mertone.*
The Saxon army, after its defeat at Basing, the last of Ethelred's
battles preceding that of Meretune, which took place two months
afterwards, would undoubtedly retreat through a district unoccupied
by the enemy ; it would not therefore retire on Merton in Surrey, or
on Merton in Oxfordshire, or on Morton in Berks, which were
situated in districts that had submitted to the Danes. But the
country to the south was open to them, and there is no other place,
except Marden in North Wilts, whose ancient nomenclature suggests
so plausible an identity as this village of Martin in South Wilts. But
we have something to say on the question of ancient earthworks and
''fortifications," as an argument corroborative of this view. Mr.
Britton mainly relies on this species of evidence in advocating the
claims of Marden.
''On reconsidering," he sa^, "the subject in relation to the
traditional and local peculiarities of Marden, we are more confirmed
in opinion that this was the real place of conflict. In the vicinity
of Marden is a very remarkable tumulus, being of large dimensions,
and standing alone," t etc
He makes no further comment on the " traditional " evidence. We
cannot comprehend the force of the testimony which a tumulus of
undeniably ancient British construction is thought capable of afford-
ing in support of a claim which has nothing whatever of ancient
British belonging to it Conceived in the same vague comprehension
of the character of ancient earthworks was the hint thrown out
in Hutchins in reference to " a range of fortifications " to ibe seen
near the village of Martin. They are to be seen, it is true ; earthworks
of varied and extensive description ; entrenchments enclosing an
ancient British hill-fortress ; viae leading towards, and into it ; and
above all, a stupendous vallum traversing the open down for nearly
two miles, and rivalling the Wansdyke in its strength 'X ^^^ these are
features of that country which may have been ages ago, as they are
still, objects of archaeological interest, even in that remote time when
the Saxon and Dane engaged in mortal conflict; assuredly they
cannot be constructed into proofs or illustrations of that deadly
struggle.
There are, however, certain other indications which may be appealed
to in determining the probability of the hypothesis advanced The
land to the south of Martin rises abruptly to a considerable elevation
above the valley, and bears the name of Hanham Hill, which is con-
tinuous with the range of the Blagden and Pentridge hills in Wilts
and Dorset This hill we suppose to have been the scene of Ethelred's
« <« Modern Wilts," Hundred of Damerham.
t Ibid.<t p. 410.
X Bockly Dyke, the modern boundary of the counties of Wilts and Dorset.
284 Late Anglo-Saxon Antiquities.
last encounter with the Danes. At the distance of about a mile and a
half to the south-east, on the Damerham Down, there is an earthwork
or entrenched camp of very peculiar construction, called '* Soldiers'
Ring." It is not a ring^ but a spacious parallelogram included wiihin
a triple vallum and double foss of inconsiderable height and depth.
Sir K. C Hoare knew not what to make of it, diflfering as it does from
the ordinary characters of Celtic and Roman camps.* May we not,
therefore, ascribe it to the Danes or Saxons ? And we therefore hazard
the conjecture that this was the Saxon camp occupied by Ethelred,
and situated in proximity to that elevated land which was so favour-
ably adapted for defensive purposes. There is another noteworthy
point in connection with this locality. In several of the tumuli of the
contiguous district which were investigated by Hoare, he discovered
objects which are of very rare occurrence in the tumuli of Wilts and
Dorset, viz., iron spear-heads, and a few personal ornaments, all of
a decided Saxon character, though the learned antiquary does not
seem to have recognised them in that light.t These may be but
sandy foundations to build a theory upon : let others set upon them
what value they please ; to us they seem, at all events, to lie in the
right direction. Nor may we omit to mention the existence of a
popular tradition of the village connected with Hanham Hill, which
seems to convey an obscure remembrance of the event we are attempt-
ing to locate there. " In old times, when there was a king in every
county, a battle was fought on Hanham Hill and a king was slain."
So fiilly convinced was our informant of the truth of this story, that
he, a poor man, with true antiquarian zeal (we will not give it a harsh
name), had actually delved with spade and pickaxe in the bosom of
that lonely hill, in search of the king's crown and other treasures
which are believed by the peasantry to be deposited somewhere in
that spot But all in vain ; that fortunate discovery is reserved fur
the members of an archaeological congress 1
We pass on from this part of our subject to consider the manner of
Ethelred's death.
" Per manus Dacorum," would imply that he died of wounds re-
ceived in conflict with these enemies of his country : it is, however,
singular, it such were indeed the fact, that neither Saxon Chronicle,
nor Asser, nor iEthelward, who was his kinsman, make any mention
of it He who first attributes the King's death to wounds received
in battle is John of Brompton, followed (dubiously) by Higden, and
by the Brut Chronicle ; the rest of the old chroniclers are silent on
the point Later historians, as Fabyan, Polydore Vergil, Camden,
and Speed, are unanimous in their affirmation of the fact, yet we fail
to see on what authority their statement is founded. William of
Malmesbury and Ingulph of Croyland distinctly assert that he died
harassed and worn out by his exertions in the numerous battles in
♦ "Ancient Wilts," by Sir R. C. Hoare. t Ibid., Woodyatte tumuli
On the Brass of King E their ed the Elder. 285
which he had been engaged. As a climax, it has even been surmised
that he died of the plague;* a notion that originated in a faulty
interpretation of the text of the Saxon Chronicle, wherein the word
Somerlida is used — a word susceptible of various meanings, as, a
'* pestilence," a " cessation of hostilities during the summer f the
latter being the most probable sense of the expression, as applied to
the Danish army, which having fallen back upon Reading after the
battle of Meretune, remained there in rest during the summer.
Lastly, we must notice a statement we find in Camden and re-
peated by Rapin, viz., that " he was slain in battle with the Danes
at Wittingham." Speed also states " he died at Wittingham of his
wound received the three and 20th day of April, in the yeare of our
Ix>rd God 872/' etc.; a statement so completely new in respect to
all previous authorities, that we should be glad to discover from what
other source it was derived, but no clue is afforded us.
There is, however, a village five miles north of Wimbome and in
the direct line from Martin, called Wichampton, which is said to be
the place where Ethelred breathed his last There have been found
indications of an ancient monastic building in that village, but of
which no other memorial is known ; and it may be argued with some
show of probability that the statement made by those historians was
the embodiment of a tradition still lingering round that desecrated
spot That Ethelred should retire upon Wimbome, in the neigh-
bourhood of which, either at Kingston Lacy or at Badbury, the
West Saxon kings are said to have had their palace, is a reasonable
supposition. Faint, then, and exhausted, suffering, it may be, from
a mortal wound, the King found himself unable to reach his own
residence, so stopped at that holy house by the way, and never left
it again alive.
Of Etheh-ed's piety there can be no doubt, t but We have failed
to discover the authority by which posterity have made a martyr
of him, since he does not enjoy that honourable distinction in the
* Rapin, vol. i., p. 89, with reference to a note in Spelman's "Life of Alfred.**
See also the " History of Britain," by John Milton.
t Cf. Asser's ^ Annals " and Fabyan's *' Chronicle.*' His piety was not saffi-
ciently tempered with discretion. In this respect his character presents a striking
contrast to that of his brother Alfred, who was pre-eminently a man of action as
well as religious principle. This receives a remarkable illustration in an incident
related by Asser. When thev were about to attack the Danish armv at Ashdown
(yEsces-dun), it is said that Alfred came quickly to the field, but Ethelred remained
in his lent engaged in prayer and hearing mass ; and declared he would not leave
it alive before the priest had finished, nor forsake the service of God for that of
man. Their arrangements for the attack had been ap'eed upon, but Ethelred
continued so long at his devotions that the enemv gamed an advantage of the
ground. Alfred, who was then subordinate to his brother, could resist no longer
the alternative of retreating or of falling upon their ranks before the King's arrival
on the field ; therefore, relying on the Divine guidance and help, he pressed for-
ward, and no doubt mainly contributed to the victory won that day by the Saxons.
286 Late Anglo-Saxon Antiquities.
English Calendar. It was probably an honour conferred by popular
acclamation.
At the enlargement of Mr. Bankes's vault, which extends under
the presbytery, in 1837, the workmen exhumed in the* north-east
comer, near the original site of the altar, and about two feet under
ground, the skeleton of a man, that measured as it lay 6 feet 4 inches.
This spot is at some distance west of that now indicated by the
brass on the floor as the situation of Ethelred's grave; for the
presbytery b said to have been considerably lengthened, previously
to which the altar stood much nearer the choir. There is no great
improbability in the conjecture that those may have been the bones
of Ethelred.
Dr. T. W. W. Smart, M.R.C.P., etc.
St Guthlake'8 Cross.
[i759»M 570b 571.]
As Camden and other learned antiquarians have made mention
of the inscription on St Guthlake's Cross, which stands upon the
side of a bank, and was a boundary of the church lands belonging to
the abbey of Croyland, but not one of them, as I remember, has
given a draught of it, I have sent you a very accurate one to be dis-
posed of as you think proper.
Yours, E, A.
It b of so great antiquity, that the year of its erection is unknown
to the learned; however, the following citation from Dugdale's
** History of Imbanking and Drayning," p. a 10, plainly ascertains
the area:
''Though other boundaries,'' says this very learned author, 'Ms by
Edred, King of Great Britain, thus described (in the year of Christ's
incarnation, DccccxliiL), viz., from the triangular bridge at Crouland,
by the river of Weland towards Spalding, unto Asendike, where
Asendike falleth into the river of Weland, on the north part of a
certain cross of stone, there erected by Abbot Turketill, who had
been this king's chancellor, and so upwards to the east, by Asendick
to Aswictost"
The cross stands at thb very day in the place here described, and
always has stood by Asendike drain that falls into the river of
Weland. If this is a true dbcovery of the date of this stone, as no
one can doubt such an incontestible quotation, one may venture to
pronounce, without the imputation of rashness, that few religious
boundaries in England can toast of greater antiquity.
Scandinavian Antiquities,
SCANDINAVIAN ANTIQUITIES.
On the Immigration of the Scandinavians into
Leicestershire.
[1853, Arf//.,A1569-ST8J
T T OW long the mixed Roman-British population occupied the
X I district now known u the county of Leicester undisturbed
we do not know ; but it would almost seem that for a century and a
half they remained here, subject to the occasional irruptions of the
barbarous hordes of North Britaia The Saxons and Angles — a
people from the northern part of what is now the kingdom of Han-
over — had been making inroads and settling in our l^d from about
the year 450 to 55a The Angles seized upon this part of the
country, and, it can scarcely be doubted, colonized our town and
county, either subjugating the inhabitants and making them their
slaves, or expelling them from the soiL I am inclined to think the
former, because the surrounding teiritories were already occupied by
earlier Germanic settlefs.
It requires do great mental effort to believe that between the
years 600 and 700 all the villages in this neighbourhood having a
Saxon or Anglian origin were established. The wide extent to which
the Angles colonized our county may be inferred from the fact, that
of the 400 and odd villages and hamlets now existing, about 317
have names clearly traceable to that people. Nor does the circum-
stance that the town was inhabited by a mixed race, the descendants
of Romans, Roman Britons, and Roman auxiliaries, detract from
the geiMral inference that the mass of the people in this quarter were
Anglo-Saxons ; for it must be remembered Uiat the Roman garrison,
with its concomitant population, was withdrawn in the early part of
the fifth century — that irruptions of barbarians from North Britain
had at times, probably, either slain many of the remainder, or driven
them away in terror from the place, and that we are not certain
whether others were not themselves of Germanic origin. The
vol. VI. 19
290 Scandinavian Antiquities.
Anglian or Saxon elements of the population must have largely pre-
ponderated, leaving very few traces of the earlier foreign colonists in
the borotigh of Leicester.
But the Saxons were not £ftted to remain undisturbed themselves
on the soil they had conquered They had scarcely been settled
here three centuries before a hardier and fiercer race invaded them
in their turn. These were the seafaring people from the shores of
Denmark — the Danes. The fi^t notice of their hostile visits occurs
in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, under the date 787, followed bj
another under the date 793, where they are described as *' Northmen
and heathens, destroyers of God's churches" They came across
the sea in numberless boats, and were headed by leaders called
Vikings. They anchored at the mouths of the rivers, and lay about
the islands on the coasts. They often sought the Wash in Lincoln-
shire, and usually followed the course of the large rivers, with their
principal tributaries, into the inner parts of the country. It b not
our purpose to detail their successive movements and occasional
defeats. We have only to deal with broad and ultimate facts; and
therefore it is enough to state that towards the latter part of the ninth
century, about the year 900, the Danes became masters of this
district, the town itself falling into their hands, and that they occupied
both, with occasional interruptions, until the conquest of England
by the Normans. We have also existing evidence of Danish
occupancy, like that remaining relative to the Anglo-Saxons, namely,
the traces of their rural settlements.
On an analysis of the names of the villages of this county, it is
found that eighty-seven are of Danish or Danish-Norwegian deriva-
tion. It seems that all ending in by or thorpe are of this class : the
syllable by in the old Norse language meant at first a single fieirm,
afterwards a town in general ; the word thorpe in the same tongue
designates a collection of houses separated from some principal
estate. Now there are in Leicestershire sixty-six places ending in by^
and nineteen in thorpe.
From a glance at a map of Leicestershire, anyone will perceive
that the grouping of the settlements of the Nonhmen is not acci-
dental and undesigned. Take, for example, those in Framland.
The very name of th^ hundred, given to it undoubtedly by the
Anglo-Saxons, would seem to designate the district ; for, as in some
parts of England to this' day strangers are known as ^^frem folks," it
is not unlikely the people living in this county, when the Danes
settled in it, would give to the district the name of Utatfrem land, or
the land of the foreigners; and assuredly it and the contiguous
ground on the south bank of the Wreke (now in East Goscote) would
well deserve the designation, the largest proportion of bys and thorpes
in the county being here met with. The district was chosen by the
pirate-foreigners, and appropriated by them^ and for a good reason —
Immigration of Scandinavians into Lncester shire. 291
it suited their purpose admirably, and would remind them of their
home scenery.
The great avenue to the heart of England for the Northmen was
formed by the rivers Humber and Trent, the latter emptying into
the former near Burton in North Lincolnshire. When they had
conquered that county (which would appear to have been their
earliest achievement), they would find the Trent to answer the
purpose which the Midland Railway now serves to the Midlands as a
highway of communication. Having further made Nottingham and
Derby their own, they seem to have next entered the Soar where it
empties itself into the Trent, and stealing on in iheir light barks,
bivouacking on the banks when they halted, they reached the em-
bouchure of the Wreke. Having turned into this stream, with its
fair sloping banks and its elevated ridges, they were tempted to make
it their own. Hence we find, a few miles up the stream on the left
bank, the village of Rearsby, and on the same side, a mile or two
further on, Brookesby and Rotherby, opposite to Hoby on the right
side of the stream, and a little further on, Frisby and Kirby, with
Asfordby on the other side, and yet nearer to Melton, Sysonby, and
Kettleby ; and, following the Wreke in its continuation with the Eye,
there are Brentingby, Freeby, and Wiverby, with outlying thorpes.
This, I take it, is alike the line and very much the order of the
Scandinavian inroad into our county. The Soar and the Wreke
were their turnpikes, and, these settlements being established, it is
not improbable the feeders of these rivers on both sides were next
entered by subsequent parties of these adventurers. On a rivulet
branching from the Soar is' Sileby ; on other rivulets emptying into
the Wreke are Shouldby and Saxulby on the north side, and Barkby,
Barsby, Gaddesby, Ashby FolviUe, and Little Dalby, on the south
side. Nor do I doubt that nine hundred or a thousand years ago
these brooks, however shallow and narrow now, would be then, in
most cases, periodically navigable by the canoes of the Northmen,
leading to the larger streams as our village lanes do to the highways,
and affording to them channels of communication either for hasty
flight or for concerted action with their compatriots of the district.
The remark made with reference to the Wreke groups of settle-
ments will be found also to apply to the Soar and its tributaries south
of Leicester, where we find Blaby and Kilby, Lubbesthorpe (the
village of Lubba) and Enderby, Normanton (Northmantown) hall
and Elmesthorpe, and Kirkby, Primethorpe and Ashby Parva,
Arnesby and Shearsby, all near to rivulets ; but when we approach
the more purely Anglo-Saxon shires of Northampton and Warwick,
and leave the streams in connexion with the Soar and the Wreke, we
find the bys are also left behind. We then enter on a country where
the Northman would have found himself overmatched, and where
19 — 2
298 Scandinavian Antiquities.
his tMU'k could not safely cany him through the meadows occapied
by the stout Saxon thanes and iisurmers.
It may here be appropriate to show the relative posidon occupied
by the neighbouring counties to our own, with respect to the cha-
racter of their populations. To the north of us are Nottinghamshire
and Derbyshire Here (according to a table given in the highly
valuable and interesting work of the Danish antiquary, Worsaae*)we
find altogether forty-seven Danish-Norwegian places, namely, thirty-
six in the former, and eleven in the latter. In Lincolnshire and
Rutland, on the east of our county, are 29a and eight respecdvely,
Lincolnshire being composed of a preponderating Scandinavian
population. So marked b the contrast between Leicestershire and
Warwickshire, which are divided by the ancient boundary (the
Watling Street) that was set up to separate the Danelagh from the
Saxon part of Mercia, that while in this county the Scandinavian
colonists had eighty-seven abiding-places, in Warwickshire they had
only three 1
How the Anglo-Saxons and Danes settled down ultimately, history
does not exacdy inform us ; but the Danes were all settled in one
quarter and the earlier occupiers in another. Intermarriages with
the fi^males of the Saxon race must have led to the Anglicising of the
population in the eastern, midland, and northern districts of the
country; though the Scandinavian blood was far too plentiful to
permit of its absorption in the veins of the Anglian and mixed popu-
lations, and plentiful enough to ensure for it the decided perpetuadon
of the Danish element
Every reader- of our national history knows that some of the
monarchs were Danes, and that there was finally a kind of political
fusion, if there was not a blending of races, before the Norman
conquest That great event is genendly supposed to have fairly con-
founded Anglo-Saxon and Dane in a common calamity, obliterating
all traces of their individualities as separate peoples. This idea
deserves examination, and therefore we will pause before it for a
brief space.
The subjugation of England by William Duke of Normandy was
not effected readily and in a brief space of time. The batde of
Hastings, however disastrous to the Anglo-Danish inhabitants, was
not, strictly speaking, conclusive in its effect ; for the large towns and
districts required afterwards to be conquered in detail ; and it appears
that the process varied in different parts of England. In the south,
where the ancient mixed races and the Anglo-Saxons dwelt, the
population was fairly beaten and enslaved ; in the Midlands we have
reason for believing that the Anglo-Danes were brought under the
Normans' sway by means of negotiation and military power com-
bined ; in the North of England the opposition raised to his banner
* << The Danes and Northmen in England."
Immigration of Scandinavians into Leicestershire. 293
by the Danish-Norwegian settlers was uncompromising and deadly.
In the latter case, therefore, the struggle was for life and death.
William was the victor, and he then made Northumbria a shambles,
and left it a desert
I infer that the negotiations of the Conqueror had some part in
the "pacification'' of the Midlands, from the facts recorded in the
I' Domesday Book" relative to the number of freeholders existing
in various counties when that record was taken. It is evident that
had the population been subjugated in a mass by William, there
would have been only two classes — the few conquerors and the many
conquered ; but we find that in the Danish counties of Lincolnshire,
Leicestershire^ Nottinghamshire, and Derbyshire, an intermediate
class of persons was at that time established, known as '* sokemen,"
whose tenure of their lands was not, strictly speaking, servile. They
resemble the modern copyholders, their farms passing by inheritance
to their sons, they paying certain rents and performing certain feudal
duties, the feudal lord having no power beyond this over their pro-
perty. Now the numbers of ''sokemen" in each of the counties
named was as follows :
Lincolnshire 11,322
Leicestershire i»7i6
Nottinghamshire .... ^^^^^S
Derbyshire 127
At this time the town of Leicester had undergone a fearful change.
We have already noticed that the Northmen captured it about the
year 900 ; they held it for twenty or thirty years, when Ethelflaeda,
the Mercian queen, dispossessed them. For a few years it was in
Saxon hands, and then it passed to the Danes again, until the year
940, when the Saxons once more held it until the year 1013, about
seventy years. Again the Danes became its masters for twenty-eight
years, and then the Saxons resumed possession until the Conquest,
when the havoc made in the place, on the siege by the Norman
army, reduced it to ruin, and its male inhabitants appear either to
have been slain in the conflict or to have fled elsewhere.
A summary of the different classes mentioned in ''Domesday
Book" (published in Curtis's ** Leicestershire ") affords us some in-
sight into the nature of the different races found here when the
survey was taken. The entire number of persons for this county is
6>4i5> but they are possibly the male adults only. Of these, the
chief proprietors numbering 52, the knights and thanes 27, the
ecclesiastics and priests 34, the principal tenants under them loi,
may be set down as Normans — altogether 214 ; the sokemen 1,716,
burgesses 371, and bailiffs 9, in the whole 2,096, were probably
Anglo-Danish ; the villans (half slaves), numbering 2,446, were, it
may be, mainly Anglo-Saxon ; and the bordars (1,285), with the serfs
proner the most abject and miserable order of beings, 374, were, I
294 Scandinavian Antiquities.
assume, the descendants of the ancient Celtic, Romanized British,
and mixed races, who had for centuries been enslaved, and were kept
on a famr in the same way as the cattle were treated — beasts of bur-
den, having no property in or out of themselves, and fed and littered
in sheds with the swine and oxen of the landowner.
The relative proportions of the races (if this estimate be correct,
being based on the presumption that, after the Conquest, every class
of the natives pressed that below it a degree lower) would be thus :
Normans 314, Anglo-Danes 2,096, Anglo-Saxons 3,446, the mixed
Celtic inhabitants 1,659. Supposing these numbers to represent the
relative proportions of the races, there would appear to have been
three of the Scandinavian and Saxon races to one of the ancient
population ; or, to make the calculation in another form, three in
every hundred of the inhabitants were of Norman, thirty-three of
Danish, thirty-eight of Anglo-Saxon, and twenty-six of mixed Celtic
derivation.
After the Norman Conquest no fresh immigrations of foreigners
took place into this county worthy of notice. The races gradually
settled down into classes ; the Norman probably representing the
aristocracy, the Danish the gentry and yeomen, the Saxon the
burgher population and farmers, and the Celtic race the labourers and
slaves of the villages. These, of course, would be the general facts ;
exceptions to them there would undoubtedly be, but, in the main, I
think they may be relied on.
It may be argued that all traces of distinctive origin would soon
be lost, from the operation of two causes, the frequent intermarriage
of the representatives of the races with each other, and the migration
of people from one site to another. To this I reply that the sdliance
of persons of different races and stations would be far more unlikely
in the centuries immediately following the Conquest than it is now,
when social distinctions are relaxed. The Norman, always haughty,
and doubly so when he had become a conqueror, looking on all
around him as his vassals and serfs, was little likely to wed the
Rowena of his neighbourhood, however fair her complexion, and
blue her eye, and comely her countenance ; the Danish gentleman
was somewhat akin to, and perhaps imitated his feudal superior in
this respect j and the Saxon farmer would be equally repelled from
11T1 alliance with his bondwoman. The intermarriages between Dane
and Saxon were, however, more likely, from a variety of reasons ; but
the pride of station, and not totally extinct hatred of race, would
long cause all the classes to hold aloof from each other.
With regard to the removal of persons from one district to another,
this, in the early part of the Middle Ages, was almost impossible, as
the land, like a loadstone, held all to its surface The servile classes
could not, dared not, venture from the estate on which they toikd,
and, in fact, could not be alienated, for they were sold with an estate
Immigration of Scandinavians into Leicestershire. 295
in the same way as the trees were. The villeins or farmers were
hereditary tenants, and bound by various restrictions to their farms.
The gentry were virtually the owners of the estates, subject to mili-
tary service to the great baron, their suzerain. And the lords of
highest rank lived on their principal manors in iheir castles. In the
town of Leicester (as in all other boroughs) the state of circum-
stances varied, as will be explained hereafter.
About a hundred years after the Conquest several of the large
castles here referred to were standing. In an agreement made be-
tween Ralph Earl of Cht- ster and Robert Earl of Leicester, in the
year 1 151, the castles of Mountsorrel and Ravenstone are referred to ;
but there were others besides these, as at Bel voir, Sauvey near With-
cotjj, VVhitwick, Shilton, Hinckley, Groby, Donington, Melton, Sea-
grave, Thorpe Arnold, and Leicester. Of these, four were founded
(according to Burton) by the Norman Earl of Leicester, two by
Grantmesnil the lord of Hinckley, and the others by lesser barons.
It is impossible to trace lineally even the feudal barons and their
chief tenants from the time of the Norman Conquest ; for surnames
were not yet adopted, and, when they were, the large landowners
took the names of their estates, — members of the same family being
known by different names. But heraldry here steps in to aid us in
identifying families and discerning relationships. The science of
blazonry does not appear to have been reduced to a system before
the Crusades, or between the years 11 50 and 1200. At that date
every baron, and knight, and gentleman of estate, had his shield of
arms. The ancient Earls of Leicester used a cinquefoil ermine on a
red ground, as we see it at the present day in the arms of the borough
of Leicester. To their principal tenants (who in war were bound to
assemble at their summons, and to serve under their leading), they
granted the privilege of copying their shields, the heralds making a
difference in the colours of the cinquefoil and the ground. Of these
families, traces of twenty at least may be met with in ancient records,
histories, and the painted elass of our village churches. The principal
names are Mortival, Astley, Villiers, Bardolfe, Maureward, Caltoft,
Hauberk, Angerville, Clifton, Hoton, Turville, Hamilton, and
Walshall. A smaller number also held under the Lords Albany
of Belvoir Castle, including 'Charnels, Kerriell, Rohand, and
Staunton. In addition to these are the names of d'Anvers, Ashby,
Bassett, Beaumont, Belgrave, Burdett, Farnham, Harcourt, Seagrave,
Satchville, Temple, Wichard, Zouch, and others.
These, or most of these, arc the names of knights and gentlemen
either of Norman origin or descent, who had possessions in Leicester-
shire as early as the Conquest, or not later than two centuries after
that event ; and most jealously did they avoid in their family alliances
any supposed deterioration of blood, or breeding.
At the same time the inhabitants of the borough were multiplying
296 Scandinavian Antiquities.
under the operation of influences strongly adverse to indtscriminate
admixtures of race. From the circumstance that the tribute paid to
the Conqueror hj the inhabitants of Leicester, when the Survey was
taken, was reckoned in Danish money, it is to be inferred that the
dominant portion of the inhabitants were of that origin. But it
matters little to our inquiry what they were, as, not more than a
century and quarter after, the townspeople were compelled to leave
the place in a mass, after a siege by the army of Henry the Second,
— some settling at St. Albans, and others at Edmundsbury. The
descendants of the original Leicestrians are therefore to be soi:^bt
(if there be any remote chance of finding them) in those placeSb
This event happened in the year 1173. In or before the year
1 196 the town appears to have been populated afreshy^rom what
quarter it is not clear. But we have a record exunt of that date
which will give us some insight into the matter. It b the most
ancient preserved among the town archives. It is the roll of the
merchant guild : and gives the names of all who entered into the
guild, or body of burgesses, in the year last named, when King John
had only recently ascended the throne. The names number not more
than seventy.
A considerable proportion of these (if names may guide us) are
purely Scandinavian ; at a rough guess, we nuiy say one-third ; so
that, from whatever quarter the new inhabitants were collect«l —
whether they were the expelled burgesses or persons from other
towns and the surrounding rural districts — the races were propor*
tioned to each other, apparently, as they had been previously.
But two facts testify as to the preponderating influence and
numerical prevalence of the Northmen in this borough within the
centuries immediately succeeding the Norman Conquest The first
of these is the exbtence at that date of the custom of duelling in
cases of disputed possession of property, llie second is the mode
of succession to lands and houses then in opieration.
Now it is well known that to nothing do races of mankind more
pertinaciously cling than to the customs they inherit from their
ancestors, especially those relating to property. These became part
of their life, their polity, their very being. Hence, in nothing is the
influence of race more clearly and undeniably shown, for generation
after generation, than in the customs of a people. If there be one
usage more decidedly traceable to the Scandinavian colonists than
another it is the duel, or holme-gang, as it was called, from the cir-
cumstance of the combatants meeting on a holme or island, and
there, by an appeal to the sword, deciding their controversy — a mode
of settlement so natural to a proud, high-spirited, and warlike, but
unchristian race. This custom we have the high authority of
Worsaae for attributing to the Danish-Norwegians.
It was in force in Leicester during the earldom of Robert de
u»
>
Immigration of Scandinavians into Leicestershire. 297
Beaumont, at the commencement of the twelfth century, I have
introduced the example into the history of Leicester, as it was
recorded by certain jurors, who, in the year 1252, were appointed to
investigate the origin of a local payment called '* gavelpennies." [See
Note 32.] The circumstances were touching, and the pathos of the
story shines through the dust which centuries have shed on the
mouldering parchment, now lying among its congeners in our muni-
ment room. The combatants were of Scandinavian origin, as their
names. — Nicholas Aconson and Geoffrey Nicholson — implyi and they
were kinsmen. They had prolonged the duel fronv early morning
until after noon, when one seeing the other about to fall into a pit,
in a moment of compassion cautioned his opponent of his danger,
and the bystanders raised a shout at the incident, which drew the
Norman earl from his castle adjoining. The interference of the
leading burgesses then led to an interview with him and to the
discontinuance of the duel, — and to the institution of the trial
by jury. Thenceforward the milder and more civilized custom
prevailed.
With reference to the succession to property, we are told that the
Vikings of the North were wont to send their elder sons to sea, and
in search of a fortune, while the youngest son would inherit the
patrimony. When they had changed their mode of life, they still
adhered to the usage. Now it is recorded that up to the time of
Simon de Montfort this custom was observed in Leicester ; but that
celebrated baron gave his burgesses here a charter abolishing it, and
substituting for it the law of primogeniture, at their earnest request
In the borough, every burgess possessed privileges which he would
not readily forfeit by removing elsewhere, to a place where he would
have to acquire others by purchase. The prejudices of race largely
conduced, also (as we have seen), to the preservation of the popula-
tion from an indiscriminate or extended intermingling, while the
circumstances in which the classes were situated prevented their
frequent removal from place to place.
As instances in proof of the latter statement, it would not be
difficult to show cases in which the families of the cultivators of the
soil have held their farms for centuries in succession ; while in
boroughs we know that the possessors of guild privileges — such as
exemption from toll, permission to carry on business, eligibility to
enjoy civic honours — have transmitted to their descendants for
generations the enjoyment of those privileges. I could adduce an
example, from my own inquiries, of a family of the middle class
being enabled to trace, for nearly two centuries and a hal( the in-
heritance of these local advantages. In Leicester the family of
Wigston (on& of whom founded the hospital bearing his name), and
of a subsequent date that of Heyrick, are striking instances of the
perpetuation of town families for generations on the same spot ; but
29^ Scandinavian Antiquities.
they were paralleled by the mass of the free population of the town,
though in a less obvious and discoverable way.
Yet there were causes for the breaking up the social castes created
by the feudal system after the Conquest, and for the mixing of the
population. Principal among these may be enumerated the Civil
Wars of the 15th and 17th centuries. During the prevalence of
what are called the *'Wars of the Roses," the ancient Norman
families were, it is known, in some cases almost extirpated. The
contest was one, indeed, of mutual extermination among the aris-
tocracy and the gentry of Norman origin ; nor did this county prove
an exception to the rule. Besides, old families of this race became
extinct from natural causes, and degenerated and dissolved from the
influence of the division of property.
Of the way in which the old Norman families degenerated, became
impoverished, and in time obscure. Burton, the topographer, gives an
instance in his history of the county, published in the year 1622.
He says :
'*Sir Robert Woodford, knight, had issue Thomas, who died in the
life of his father, leaving issue John, Walter, Humfrey, Rafe, and
John, among which five sons the said Sir Robert Woodford, in the
twenty-sixth of Henry VI. (being very old), divided all his lands. Tt>
John, the eldest son of the said Thomas Woodrord, his son, he gave
his manor of Sproxton and lands in Wiggenhall and Titney, in the
county of Norfolk, and lands in Easton and South Stoke, in the
county of Lincoln."
And then Burton enumerates how all the estates were parcelled out
among the remainder of the five sons ; following up the recital with
a few pathetic reflections :
** By reason of which division so made that ancient family (which
had continued long in great account, estate, and livelihood), was in
short space utterly decayed and gone, and, as I have heard, not any
part of these lands (thus disposed) to be now in the tenure or name
of any heir male descended from any of these Ave brothers; and
some of the males lived to be brought to a very low ebb of fortune.
The like instances may be given of others in this shire, and of too
many in other counties. ... A lamentable thing (proceeds Burton)
it is to see an ancient house so rent in pieces, and the heir to be
wronged without desert, thereby disabled ever to maintain the honour
or reputation of his ancestors. That families have their times and
periods is most certain, yet wretched and vile are they by whom such
disastrous accidents are wrought."
At the Reformation, too, great changes were effected in the owner-
ship of the soil, by the dissolution of the religious houses. The pro-
perty of the Church, obtained by priestly craft from the nobles and
gentry before the Reformation, then found its way again to the hands
of the laity ; and in this county, as all over England, instances occur
Immigration of Scandinavians into Leicestershire. 299
of the wealthier citizens and burgesses becoming incorporated with
the aristocracy from the time of Edward III., when the middle classes
visibly grew in wealth and importance. Consequently, the privileged
races by degrees recruited their numbers by accessions from the
Anglo-Danish and Anglo-Saxon inhabitants of cities and towns, but
not to a large extent
Between the fifteenth century and the present day the tendency to
the effacing of all differences of race has been growing more powerful
in every succeeding generation, owing to the abolition of the feudal
system, of class privil^es, and of civic monopolies, and to the yearly-
increasing facilities for locomotion. Society has everywhere become
less stationary, and caste influences less binding and operative. But
even yet the pride of birth and race lives, and our municipal institu-
tions favour fixed residence ; while our settlement laws and agricul-
tural tenures are preventatives to a rapid fusion of the rural population
of different districts.
I now come to the second head of our inquiry, What traces exist
among us of the ancient races ?
The facts on these heads arrange themselves variously. The popu-
lation settled in this district eight centuries ago would transmit to
their descendants proofs of their former existence here, and of their
permanent influence. We should expect to hear traditions of them ;
to learn that once prevalent customs yet lingered among us ; to find
ancient remains of them; to see ancient family names kept up ; and
to trace physiognomical and craniological peculiarities to the present
day, and to detect in dialects something of the language of the
original races. But at present minute ethnology is imperfectly studied
and understood ; it is a nascent rather than a developed science. I
have therefore to contend with dif!iculties at present insuperable in
the satisfactory prosecution of this inquiry.
It is certain that traditions of the Danes have survived the lapse of
time. Near Leicester the Dane Hills remind us of the presence of
that once terrible ravaging host, and from childhood some inhabitants
have been taught to think that the irregularities of the surface on that
site indicate the burial-places of those who fell in a combat with the
victorious natives ; and, though the hills and hollows there discernible
are probably but the remains of exhausted stone quarries, worked
since the Norman Conquest, a battle may yet have taken place on the
site, in which the Northmen encountered the Saxons of Leicester.
The old and now obsolete custom of the " Whipping Toms "* has
also been derived from the expulsion of the Danes from Leicester by
the Saxon inhabitants, the waggoners having used their heavy whips
and the labourers their flails in the affray.
Among supposed remains of the Danes I am induced to class the
large tumulus at Ratcliffe known as *' Shipley Hill," and which the
* Described in our Magazine for July last, p. 32. [See Note 33.
300 Scandinavian Antiquities.
unlettered peasantry say covers the remains of a formerly famous
Captain Shipley. But the name speaks for itself: it signifies in the
Saxon the '* ship meadow," from the resemblance of the hill to a ship
turned keel upwards. A similar example occurs in another county,
but the name has reference merely to the site Looking at the near-
ness of the tumulus t6 the Wreke — scarcely two miles from the spot
where it empties itself into the Soar, and just at the entrance to the
district of the Scandinavian settlements on both banks of the Wreke
— I think it far from improbable that here was once fought some
general engagement between the Anglian population and the Danish
intruders, the tumulus being at once a burial-place and a memorial of
the event
The cross in Rothley churchyard is also an interesting relic of the
Scandinavian settlement It is certainly attributable to that people,
and denotes the last resting-place of some Danish chieftain, a convert
to Christianity, whose monument was erected either in the tench or
eleventh century. There are no runes, or Danish characters, upon it ;
but this may be owing to the association of magical influence with the
employment of those singular marks, which an adoption of Chris-
tianity might lead the Northman sculptor to reject as heathenish.
In addition to these remains of the Scandinavians, I am induced to
add the encampments at Ratby, Ingarsby, and Humberstone. It is
certain that Ratby speaks for itself as a " cleared place near a settle-
ment,'' and it occupies just such a position for an advanced outpost
of the Danes, with a decidedly Anglian frontier before them, as they
might be expected to establish. Ingarsby may have been the post
occupied by Ingvar (one of the sons of the famous Regnar Lodbrog),
when he and his brother Hubba subjugated the Midlands about the
middle of the ninth century. Humberston may be a corruption of
Hubba's tun, or the settlement of Ingvar's brother ; and the embank-
ments and fosse near that village, known now as Swann's Orchard, are
perchance the relics of a site whence that fearless Northman once
issued, to join with his equally fearless brother in many an onslaught
on the terrified inhabitants.
Leaving these conjectures, I now enter on surer grounds of proof
that we have evidence among us qf the descendants of ancient races,
to be recognised in the surnames they bear. Before adducing these
instances I would, however, premise that surnames are not of them-
selves unfailing evidence of descent It is not every bearer of a
Norman name whose ancestors were Normans ; for such names have
been often assumed unwarrantably, and have been conferred by lords
on their vassals. Accuracy in these cases is only to be determined
by the researches of the genealogist, confirmed by the craniologist
and the physiognomist Still, we have yet in Leicestershire (as else-
where) unquestionable representatives of the old Norman knights and
soldiers who fought under William's banner at Hastings. Among
Immigration of Scandinavians into Leicestershire. 301
these I class the Mannerses, the Turvilles, the Nevilles, the Belgraves,
the Pagets, the Bassetts, and some few others. The tall, sinewy
forms, aquiline noses, dark-grey or hazel eyes, and dignified bearing
of some of the bearers of these chivalrous names, attest the justice
of the classification. The Norwegian-Danish Erics or Heyricks still
also bear evidence of the presence in our county of the descendants
of that race ; while many names in the middle and lower classes are
as purely Danish as those used at this day in Denmark. Upon this
point we have the testimony of Worsaae. As that gentleman acutely
and widely observed what came before him in his visit, with the eye
of a native Dane and a learned antiquary, his statements have here a
peculiar value. He states that in the midland and northern counties
of England he firequently met with old Scandinavian national names,
such as Thorkil, Erik, Halden, Harold, Else, and others ; but yet
more frequently with such as Adamson, Jackson, Johnson, Nelson,
Thomson, Stevenson, Swainson, and so forth. The termination in
" son " or ''son " is, he says, quite peculiar to the countries of Scan-
dinavia, and is never found in Saxon names. It was introduced into
England by the Danish and Norwegian settlers ; and he adds that the
name of Johnson, one of the commonest among us, is that which,
even at the present day, occurs most frequently in Iceland. He says,
moreover, that in the districts here alluded to he saw every moment,
especially in the rural parts, faces exactly resembling those at home.
Had he met the same persons in Denmark or Norway, it would never
have entered his mind they were foreigners ; in Northumberland this
was remarkably the case — the rather broad faces, slightly projecting
cheek-bones, rather flat and in some cases upturned noses, light eyes
and hair, and compact, middle-sized frames, reminding him of the
Danes and Norwegians of the present day, who are descended fi-om
a common ancestry, who contrast strongly with south Englanders.
The temper, too, of the people in the north of this country and the
south seemed to Worsaae to be opposite : the northern Englishman
is, he remarks, firmer and harder, bordering on the severe, possessing
an unusually strong feeling of freedom. He cites the case of the
'* tetchy " and hasty, but determined and independent Yorkshireman,
as a contrast to that of the softer and more compliant Englishman of
the southern counties. Of the Saxon or Anglian element, so near
akin to the Danish, we have many evidences in the county in the
surnames, physiognomies, temper, and habits of the population As
a rule, the surnames are taken firom trades and occupations, from the
villages whence the first bearers of them immigrated into borough
towns, from bodily peculiarities, and from accidental circumstances.
Hence, I think, we may class the Bakers, Butchers, Coopers, Dyers,
Farmers, Falconers, Gunners, Goldsmiths, Ironmongers, Moneyers,
Mercers, Painters, Quilters, Smiths, Spicers (the ancient word for
grocer), Taverners, Vintners, Wheelers (or Wheelwrights), Wrights,
302 Scandinavian Antiquities.
and many other words signifying trades or occupations^ with the Saxon
race ; as well as those which are known to us as names of viHages^
such as Frisby, Kilby, Wigston, Brooksby, and others ; though in the
latter instance there are families of Norman origin who took their
names from their estates, and whose pedigrees are traceable from
Norman or very early times, as the Belgraves, Ashbys, Skeffingtons,
Famhams, and so forth. Among the persons of Saxon descent may
be found, also (as already suggested), the Thins and the Thicks, the
Longs and the Shorts, the Biggs and the Littles, the Greats (or
Greets) and the Smalls, the Proudmans and the Meeks, the Whites
and the Blacks, the Browns and the Greens, the Greys and the
Oranges, with Wrynecks, Greatheads, Hands, Legges, and others too
numerous to mention. Many of these are, in some parts of England,
to be found associated with persons in the classes of the gentry and
nobility, either owing to their own or their ancestors' energy and
fortune.
We believe the Saxon type of bodily configuration in most respects
resembles the Scandinavian, except that those who possess it are
generally lower in stature, have often larger hands and feet, a bluer
eye, a fairer complexion, have auburn or flaxen hair, and are more
inclined to corpulency. In character they are ^'slow but sure,"
patient, humane, industrious, unobtrusive, moderate in most respects,
practical and not showy ; in short, they manifest the distinctive dispo-
sitions and qualities of the average English character. Of the old
Celtic races, dark hair and eyes, low stature, a slight frame, a quick
and impulsive disposition, a naturally polite and smooth demeanour,
a gay temper, a ready perception, are supposed to be some of the
prevailing evidences. They preponderate more in the cities and the
large towns than in the villages ; it is in the latter where the inter-
mixture of races, is less obvious.
Of the dialects of Leicestershire, ethnologically considered, little
can at present be advanced. In the county town, and at Lough-
borough, the word ** gate ^ still in various instances indicates a street
(in accordance with old Scandinavian usage) ; but, on looking over
Dr. Evans's work on " Leicestershire Words and Phrases," I find few
if any of the words from the Norse language common in the north of
England. This I attribute to the rev. doctor's collection, having
been mainly derived from south-western or Anglian Leicestershire ;
but I learn that the Christmas block (elsewhere called the yule log)
still bums on the hearth at Christmas in the farmhouses in Framland
hundred, and a fragment is carried away to be consumed entirely when
the hospitable season returns, just as was probably the wont among
those who settled on the banks of the Wreke a thousand years
bygone. [See Note 34.]
James Thompson.
Discovery of Norse Remains in Orkney, 303
Discovery of Norse Remains in Orkney.
[iSe^ Pari //., p. 336.]
A most interesting discovery has recently been made in Westray,
Mr. Farrer, M.P., who is indefatigable in his researches, having
fortunately fallen upon what appear to be the unmistakable remains
of a mailed Norse warrior and his horse. The labourers engaged
under his direction in removing sand from the lower part of the Links,
east of Pierowall, in Wesiray, with the view to ascertain whether any
graves yet remained undisturbed, discovered portions of the skeleton
of a small horse, a fragment of the lower jaw of a human being in
which were three teeth in good preservation, together with pieces of
iron very much corroded, two iron buckles, several large nail-heads,
and the half of what appeared to have been a bone button. The
oak wood to which the iron had been attached is in most instances as
hard as the iron itself. From the position in which the human jaw
was totind, it seems probable that the horse and the rider had fallen
at the same moment. There was no appearance of any grave. The
skeletons had obviously been left to decay where they fell, and
the discovery of some pieces of iron a few yards further off suggests
the probability of the bodies having been pulled to pieces by dogs, or
birds of prey. A piece of bone, possibly the wrist-bone, adhered to
the larger of the two buckles, but it crumbled away on being touched.
The size of the nails and weight of the iron renders it doubtful whether
the whole could have formed a shield, and it is not impossible that
some of these iron relics may have belonged to the horse trappings.
Sand had drifted over the remains, but there was no appearance of
artificial interment. The horse was probably unshod ; the homy
parts of the hoofs had disappeared, but the bone beneath was in good
preservation. No portion of iron was found near the hoofs. The
skull of the horse was almost entirely decomposed. The sand
covering the remains varied in depth from two to three feet. There
is a tradition in Westray of a battle having been fought between the
old inhabitants and the Norsemen at the place where the remains
were found — Orkney herald.
Discovery of Ancient Graves in Deemess, Orkney.
[1861, Pari II,, p, 37.]
A new hill farm in Deerness having been lately taken on lease by
Mr. John Delday, farmer there, he has been actively bringing it
under cultivation. In the course of his operations, he has discovered
beneath the surface of the soil numerous traces of ancient buildings,
and remains of stone vessels similar to those which are often found in
the " broughs " or large round towers. The writer examined some of
these relics ; he saw also a stone so deeply notched at one end that
when the other, which is very thick, is fixed in the ground, it forms a
304 Scandinavian Antiquities.
strong stake. It was of a wedge shape, the notches being at the thin
end, and the thick end having been evidently intended to be inserted
in the ground. Similar stones have been frequently found in the
broughsi and in the neighbourhood of their ruina In some cases the
notches or grooves had been much worn by a rope or other fisistening.
These ruins in Deemess are on the slope of a low hill ; and on its
summit are two ^' barrows ** or grave mounds. The tenant of the £ann
has been carrying away the clay from one of those to another part of
his farm. This led to the discovery that the barrow contained
several kists or graves of various sizes, in which were quantities of
burnt bones ; and two rudely fashioned clay urns, also containing
burnt bones, were found outside the kists. One of these was removed
nearly whole, but was afterwards broken by a boy ; the other was too
fragile to be lifted, but was measured by the writer in its original
position in the clay. It was 17 inches deep, 12 inches wide at the
mouth, and 6 inches at the bottom, and its average thickness iras
above five-eighths of an inch. — Northern Ensign.
Discovery of Ancient Relics in Orkney.
[1858, Pni /., /. 54a.]
A very important discovery of ancient. silver relics has been made
at Sandwick — perhaps one of the most extensive and important
discoveries, in an archaeological point of view, that has ever been
made in Scotland. The relics were discovered in a rabbit-hole. Some
time ago a boy happened to pick up some silver coins which the
rabbits had thrown out in the formation of their hole, and carried
them home. The circumstance became known, and one day lately,
as some people were waiting for the ebb of the tide, before proceeding
with the work of gathering ware, one of their number proposed that
they should visit the place where the boy had lately discovered the
money. They accordingly went in a body to the spot, and at the first
or second stroke of a warehook one of them drew out a large heap of
silver. At the sight of the bright metal there was instantly a
scramble among those present, and by one or other all of them were
carried away. The circumstances coming afterwards to the ears of
the authorities in Kirkwall, an investigation was made, and we are
glad that the greater part of the treasure has been recovered, Sheriff
Robertson and others, who interested themselves in recovering the
property, having remunerated the finders. The relics are altogether
several pounds in weight, and consist of massive pins, brooches, bracelets,
necklaces, and other ornaments, beside some number of silver coinsL
The dates of the latter, and the supposed age of the ornaments, we
have not ascertained, but we believe that both have been contempo-
raneous with the reign of the earliest kings in Scottish or Scandina-
vian history,— JoAm u Groat Journal.
r*'
>
Vitrified Forts of Scotland and the Orkneys. 305
Vitrified Ports of Scotland and the Orkneys.
[1831, Part iL.pp. 633-637.1
In OUT previous volumes we have occasionally noticed these curious
remains of an unknown but distant period as being peculiar to
Scotland. (See our vols. xciv. iL 260 ; xcvii. L 624, etc [Note 35]).
Considering the interest they are calculated to excite in the minds of
the antiquary, the historian, and the philosopher, the following general
disquisition, accompanied by some curious facts and recent dis-
coveries, may not prove uninteresting.
By a vitrified fort (says Dr. Hibbert in the ''Archssologia Scotica,"
vol. iv.) is implied an area of ground, often of a round or elliptical
form, and evidently selected for some natural defence possessed by it,
which is further protected by one or more inclosing ramparts, formed
by stones ; these stones showing, to a greater or less extent, marks of
vitrification, by which they are cemented together. None of these
vitrified forts exhibit, as from many writers we should be erroneously
led to suppose, any regular masonry in their structure. Unhewn
fragments of stones, and water-worn boulders, sometimes mingled
with smaller gravel, appear in a quantity almost exceeding belief
following the contour of the summit of a mountain, or, as in the
instance of a fort which is situated in the Kyles of Bute, following the
contour of a small holm or islet, elevated a few yards only above the
level of the sea ; and in cases where, owing to the more exposed
nature of the ground, a stronger defence is demanded, a double or
even treble rampart of the same rude materials is added.
The vitrification which characterises these forts is, in some few of
them, displayed to an extent that is perfectly astonishing ; while in
other insunces it is with difiiculty to be detected. In short, no two
forts in their degrees of vitrification are in any respect conformable to
each other ; and it is of importance to add, that throughout Scotland
similar forts appear, having no marks of vitrification whatever. These
forts first met with scientific attention about half a century ago, when
various theories were proposed to account for the origin of their vitrifi-
cation, which theories may be reduced to the following heads : —
1. The notion that the vitrification observable in these forts was the
result of volcanic agency.
2. The theory, that vitrification was artificially induced, as a cement
for the consolidation of ramparts of loose stones.
3. The theory of Dr. Anderson, that vitrification was promoted by
the employment of a peculiar vitrescible ore.
4. The theory of Lord Woodhouselee, ihat fire has not been
employed in the construction, but towards the demolition of such forts
as display the marks of vitrification.
5. The opinion that the vitrification of these forts was the result of
beacon-fires.
VOL. VI. ac
306 Scandtnavian Antiquities.
This theory has met with many supporters, particularly among the
contributors to St John Sinclair's ** Statistical Account of ScotlaDd."
But the most able advocate of this opinion is Sir George Mackenzie,
of Coul, Bart., in an article on vitrified forts, written by him for Dr.
Brewster's " Encyclopsedia," and in his published letter addressed to
Sir Walter Scott, on the vitrified fort of KnockiarriL The chief argu-
ments for this opinion are, that the marks of fire are bdicative of an
accidental rather than of an intentional effect, and that vitrified forts
are generally situated on lofty insulated hills, in such a chain or
mutual connection as to allow of telegraphic communications to be
conveyed from one station to another at a considerable distance
Inacommunication read to the Philosophical Society of Manchester
by Dr. Milligan, the author b of opinion that these beacon-fires were
in use among the earliest inhabitants of Caledonia ; and he supposes
that, as the invasion of Agricola was attended by a fleet on the coast
of Scotland, the fires seen in the interior of the country, which Tacitus
describes as the flames of dwellings kindled by the inhabitants, might
have been signal-fires communicating from hill to hill; as, for instance,
from Stonehaven to Bute, where a line of vitrified forts may be traced ;
and that this telegraphic communication was the prelude of the batde
of the Grampians. Various other writers, however, assign to these
forts a much later date, particularly the contributors to Sir John
Sinclair's ''Statistical Reports. ** They conceive that they were in
chief requisition as beacons during the descents of the Northmen,
which lasted several centuries. This last opinion many, if not most,
of the vitrified sites which have been examined tend greatly to
support The coasts of Scotland began to be annoyed by the preda-
tory visits of the Vikings about the end of the eighth century ; but it
was not probably until the Scots had obtained a complete ascendency
over the Picts, by which both were united under one government, that
systems of beacons were formed to provide against the sudden descents
of the Scandinavians, who invaded them from the Danish or Nor-
wegian shores, or from countries which they subsequently colonised,
namely, from Shetland, Orkney, Caithness, Sutherland, the Hebrides,
Ireland, or the Isle of MarL The Murray Frith, as we learn from
ancient Sagas, was one of .the most convenient landing-places for the
Northmen ; and hence we must look to this locality for the greatest
proportion of vitrified sites. The number of such as have been traced
within sight of each other, in a direction east to west from Banff to
Dingwall, and in a direction north to south from Cromarty to Fort
Augustus, may be estimated at twenty ; but it is probable that their
actual amount will be eventually found to be much more. Two vitri-
fied eminences appear near Huntly, connected apparently with the
line of coast extending from Kinnaird's Head to the mouth of the
Dee More south, a chain of vitrified sites, nine or ten in number
appears to have conveyed signals from the line of coast which
Vitrified Forts of Scotland and the Orkneys. 307
stretches from Kincardine to the Tay, being prolonged from Stone
haven or Dundee to the neighbourhood of Dunkeld or Crief£ On
the west coast, again, we find similar vitrified sites at Bute, Cantire,
Isla, Loch Etive, Loch Sunart, Fort William, or at Arisaig. The
number which subsists on the west yet remains to be ascertained ;
about twelve have been enumerated. At Galloway, three occur,
apparently as signals against the marauding colonists of Ireland.
At the hill of Cowdenknows, on the borders of Berwickshire,
although its summit has been fortified, it is on the flank of this
eminence, where little or no defence appears, but which commands
the view of a considerable tract di country to the north and north-
east, that a small caim of vitrified stones is to be detected. In many
other places, also, vitrification is rather to be observed on the unpro-
tected side than upon the defended summit of a hill ; which circum-
stances might lead us to suppose, that signals of alarm were often
intended to be concealed from an invading enemy, with the design
that a readier chance of success might be aflforded to stratagems of
repulsion or surprise.
Wallace, who wrote in the year 1 700, has stated, that even at that late
period " the people (of Orkney) had in every isle a wart-hill or ward-
hill, which is the most conspicuous and elevated part of the isle, on
which, in time of war, they keep ward; and when they see the
enemies' ships approaching, they put a fire, thereby to give notice to
the adjacent isles of the nearness of the enemy, and to advertise them
to be on their guard, or to come to their help ; this they distinguished
by the number of fires."
Most of the vitrified forts show internal evidence of their having
been in use for some such incidental purposes as beacon-signals.
Where the stones which have received the full force of the fires appear
of inconsiderable depth, a complete fusion of the part has taken place,
but, in other examples, the fiised matter has run among the stones in
small streams. In almost every case vitrification appears in patches,
the cementing process not being a continuous, but a very limited
effect
6. The probability that many of the sites in which vitrified remains
occur were places of rendezvous for tribes or clans, upon all public
occasions of peace or warfare.
7. The ancient densely-wooded state of Scotland, of which the
number of vitrified sites, and the occasional intensity and extent of
their vitrification, serve as indications.
The forests of Scotland, from the fifth to the fourteenth century, far
exceeded in abundance or magnitude those of South Britain. Among
the produce of them are enumerated the oak, the pine (Pinus sylvestris
or Scots fir), the birch, the hazel, the broad-leaved or wych elm, the
roan tree (or mountain ash)» the common ash, the yew, the alder, the
20 — 2
3o8 Scandinavian Antiquitus.
trembling poplar {jPoptl$fs irewmU^ ths bird cherry (Pru$ims fodus)^
and the saugh or sallow.
Keeping then, this ancient wooded state of Scotland steadUj in
view, it is bjr no means illogical to extend mther than to limit the
causes which would induce our ancestors in a country overspread with
trees, where arable land was also much wanted, to allow the spoils
of dense woods and thickets to be kindled upon every occasion of
rejoicing, of religious sacrifice, or c^ alarm upon the approach of an
invading enemy. In ftct, the effects indicative of immense piles
of bhzmg forest trees, the vitrifying action of which would be
heighten^ by &vouring currents of wind, as Iqr a blast furnace of
surpassing intensity, are most truly marvellous, ofttimes appearing to
vie with die result of volcanic incandescence.
The thirteenth or fourteenth centuries form the closing period to
which we must limit the data of vitrified sites. The English, in their
expedition against Scotland, endeavoured to clear the soil of its encum-
bering woods ; and it is recorded that, in an expedition of the Duke of
Lancaster, eighty thousand hatchets were heard resounding throu^
the forest^ which at the same moment were consumed by spreading
fires. Lastly, as Mr. Tytler has added, many districts were soon
afterwards brought into cultivation, and converted into fields and
meadow-lands. After the period of the destruction of Scottish forests,
it would be futile to expect that any records would indicate the con-
tinuance of vitrifying causes. The hill which, as a signal of war, once
proudly biased with the lavish conflagration of stately trees, i» now
illumined with little more than a paltry tar-barrel 1 Sic transit gloria
mundL
With these preliminary observations, we shall now proceed to notice
some interesting facts as connected with recent discoveries.
In a late number of the ^^Fhihsophical Magiawu^ the particulars
of a vitrified fort found at Dunnodigoil, in the Isle of Bute, were
communicated by Samuel Sharp, Esq. This fort (observes the writer)
is on a rocky point at the south-west comer <^the Isle of Bute, perhaps
the point nearest to the Isle of Arran. It b at some distance from
trees, habitations, and higher ground. There remains now litde more
than the ground-plan, which may be traced by the vitrified founda-
tions ; but at one part the wall is more than a foot high, built of rough
stones not much larger than bricks, and by vitrification formed into
one solid mass, much like the slag of a furnace. The parts can best
be described by reference to the following figure.
From q there is a gradual ascent to the outer chamber tfg A,
which appears to have been surrounded on two sides tf and/^ by
vitrified walls. Between die outer chamber and the inner one, ahcd^
there is a slight descent, which may, however, fcnrmerly have been a
ditch of some depth. This chamber was apparendy fortified by
vitrified walls, not only outwards on the sides a b and b c, but also
Vitrified Forts of Scotland and the Orkneys. 309
on the side c d against the outer chamber. The remains of the wall
are mostly little more than foundations, but for part of ^the way
between h and ^ it is more than a foot high.
There were no traces of art to prove that the neighbouring height
n was any part of the fort, though it is made probable by the absence
of all remams of wall on the side ad kg. The walls were probably
only 3 or 3 feet thick, which, at least on three sides, was all that was
necessary where the situation made them only accessible to missiles ;
and if there were originally any others besides those mentioned, they
were probably not vitrified, as no traces, of them are now apparent :
the ground below is scattered with fragments of rocks, some of which
doubtless formed the walls.
The heights were estimated by guess, and the distances by pacing,
and have no claims to exactness. A h perhaps 70 feet above the
shore, nearly perpendicular ; b c ^/ditto, not so perpendicular ; / 15,
n 40, a rather steep ascent ; a d and h g 40, nearly perpendicular.
Between d and h the side is kept perpendicular by building,
without vitrification or ap|>arent cement Each chamber is about 40
paces long and 25 paces wide, the space between the chamber 3 paces,
the gradual ascent from q above 100 paces.
The sides b ab and bfq are each about 100 yards fix>m the sea ;
and near b are the traces of a landing-place on the beach, which,
however, must be either modem or accidental, as they could hardly
have withstood the waves of so many centuries.
Dr. MacCuUoch, aftar describing in the '' Geological Transactions,"
vol. iL, the fort of Dun MacSniochan, near Oban, combats at length
and successfully the opinion that the vitrification was the effect of
natural causes ; but the opinion could never have been held by one
who had seen this fort in Bute, where the traces of art are so evident
and so undeniable. The wall must have been first built and then
made compact and solid by vitrification, which must have required a
considerable fire to be moved from place to place, as die work
proceeded.
In the Edinburgh /aumal of Science for October last there appears
an interesting communication by Dr. Hibbert on the discovery of
some very extensive vitrified remains at Elsness, in Orkney, where
no such remains have heretofore been discovered. Although we read
in the ''Orkneyinga Saga "of numerous beacon-signals having been
lighted up in Orkney and Shetland, yet, as these islands, from remote
historic times, had been destitute of forests, no fire had been raised
of sufficient intensity to leave any marks of vitrification whatever
upon the mounds of stone on which the inflammable materials had
rested.
Elsness, lying to the south of the island of Sanday, is a promontory
rather more than a mile long from north to south, and about half a
mile 4>road. It was evidently the stronghold of a Scandinavian
3IO Scandinavian Antiquities.
chief, ODC of the ancient sea-kings, being dignified by the presence
upon it of the remains of a burgh, or circular fort, as well as of a
large sepulchral tumulus, which bears the name of Egmond's How,
and of a number of smaller cairns ranged near it in a semicircular
form, which, perhaps, were likewise the ancient resting-places of the
tmve. Another contiguous site, which, bj means of a low con-
tinuous mound of earth, is made to take the form of a large crescent,
indicates by this particular structure the pbce of a weaponshaw^ or
the site where a tribe was accustomed, upon any hostile alarm, to
repair fully armed. Again, about three-quarters of a mile to the
north of Elsness, dose to the ancient church named Mary Kirk, may
be traced the limits of an ancient tin^ where, in Pagan times, the
functions of the priest and the judge were combined.
But the most interesting remains of which Elsness can boast are
the beacon cairns with which it is studded over, many of these ex-
hibiting unequivocal testimony of a vitrification quite as intense as is
to be traced in any vitrified fort of Scotland.
These round adms, of which Dr. Hibbert counted more than
twenty, are from 3 to 5 yards in diameter, and elevated fi!om s to 3
feet above the surface of the ground. The stone fragments, of
which they are composed, which had evidently been collected from
the beach, consist of what geologists would name an azgillaceoos
schist ; being, in this instance, an equivalent of the Mansfiekl slate.
Their fusibility they have chiefly derived firom the felspar, or rathar
the alkali, which they contain. The bituminous matter which may
often be found to enter into their composition, and which, k
constantly present, would materially add to their fiisibility, is but an
occasional occurrence.
Altogether, these mounds answer to the description given by
Martin of the ancient beacons of the Isle of Harris, anodier early
colony of the Norwegians: '^ There are," says this writer, ''several
heaps of stones commonly called Karnes on the tops of hills and
rising grounds on the coast, upon which the inhabitants used to bum
heath as a signal of an approaching enemy."
The result produced upon the loose stones, which in the form of
cairns supported the fuel, is most astonishing." In some instances,
the vitrification has extended to the very bottom of a cairn, showing
an almost entire compact mass. Nothing, in short, can display the
efiects exhibited more satisfactorily, than by contrasting them with
the appearances induced on subjacent stones by the fires of the kelp-
burners of Orkney ; where, if vitrification is at all produced, it is
slight in the extreme, and rarely cements stones to an extent ex-
ceeding a few inches. This difference would indicate that a vitrifica-
tion, in order to be considerable, must be a work of time, demanding
that the same cairn, for perhaps a century or more, should be the
unvaried site on which beacon-fires were kindled.
Vilrijied Forts of Scotland and tJie Orkneys, 3 1 1
The cairns of Elsness are not, however, all wtrified alike. On
some of them a single burnt stone could not be detected, while in
other instances a cairn would almost put on the appearance of one
compact burnt mass. Too many of them also were concealed by a
thick sward, so that their character for vitrification still remains in-
determinate.
From these facts we may proceed to the following conclusions :
For three or four centuries, that is from the tenth to the fourteenth,
the Scandinavian province of Orkney, always impatient of the control
of the mother country, had no enemies to contend with so formidable
as the kings of Norway, who frequently paid them hostile visits,, to
reduce them to submission. Against these incessant invasions the
Orcadians were generally well prepared by keeping up a careful
watch in their more northerly isles, which, upon the first approach of
an enemy from the shores of Norway, should convey signals to a
fleet anchored in a convenient port, and ready to put to sea, there
to contend with its foes long before they could possibly land. These
simple historical circumstances are abundantly unfolded to us in the
" Orkneyinga Saga." Our inquiry, therefore, becomes comprised in
the following questions : First, In what part of Orkney were its ancient
galleys most commonly moored ? And secondly, In what manner
were timely signals conveyed to the fleet thus moored to arm and
put to sea ?
The first of these questions is soon resolved. It is evident, that as
hostile attacks were chiefly to be dreaded from the north, the most
northerly harbour which could afford good shelter and depth of
water for ships, provided also that it was situated on the east coast
of Orkney, would be preferred : as these two circunistances of situa-
tion united would be requisite for readily clearing out to oppose a
hostile fleet advancing in its proper course from Norway. Now, the
most northerly island, lying also to the east of the Orkney group, is
North Ronaldsay ; but here there is no harbour whatever. Nor is
the island of Sanday, the next in succession, much more fortunate ;
its navigation being greatly obstructed by surrounding shoals of sand,
whence the island has derived its name. In short, there is no port
whatever which could have afforded any convenience to early war
ships, required upon the approach of an invading fleet to instantly
put to sea, more north than the sound of Papa Stronsa. This har-
bour, then, which lies due south of Elsness in Sanday, being divided
from it by a channel a league and a half across, must, from necessity,
have been selected as the ancient Portsmouth of Orkney. No other
situation could have been so eligible for instant embarkation into the
Northern Ocean ; which superior advantage is even acknowledged at
the present day, by its being the only harbour in the isles of Orkney
which is deemed a convenient one for the prosecution of the North
Sea Fishery of the herring.
313 Scandinavian Antiqutlies.
The site of the ancient Portsmouth of Orkney being thus esta-
blished, the next object is to show through what medium telegraphic
signals, which consisted of beacon-fires, were conveyed to the fleet
thus anchored in the sound of Papa Stronsa.
Shetland, which yielded a more willing obedience to Norway, was
frequently in league with this power against Orkney, and as hostile
fleets were often reinforced in the more loyal province, the interme-
diate island, named Fair Isle, of difiicult access except to boats, was
firmly retained by the Orcadians, and converted into their most
northerly signal station. From this site an alarm fire, which would
be first hailed in North Ronaldsay, would be answered by its inha-
bitants kindling a fresh flame in order that the intelligence might
spread to Papa Westray and Westray on the west, and to Sanday on
the south. Sanday would propagate the alarm to the fleet which was
anchored in Papa Stronsa, with particulars of the number of hostile
vessels approaching the Orcadian shores. These particulars, as we
are assured by divers writers so late even as the time of Wallace, were
usually signified by the number of fires which were lighted ; and hence
the many vitrified cairns with which the signal station of Elsness in
Sanday now appears studded.
In order also to complete the efliciency of this telegraphic system,
every Scandinavian province had its laws whereby watchmen were
placed at the various wart hills of the country, as the Ward or Vord
Hilk of Orkney were named, who were required, under the severest
penalties, to be constantly on the alert to transmit a signal of alarm
to a fleet, or to the chain of beacons of which it might form a link.
Accordingly, to the north of the small island of Papa Stronsa, a higher
cairn than common, intended as a look-out place, appears, with the
evident foundations of a building near it, which, no doubt, was the
residence of the watchman whose office it was, upon the fires of
Elsness being kindled, to instantly warn the fleet which was anchored
in the contiguous sound
Dr. Hibb^rt visited several of the more common wart or nwm/ hills
of Orkney, but observed the beacoa cairns upon them to show little
more than discoloration from fire, with the exception of one ward hill
only — namely, tbat of Sanday, which is situated about two miles
north of Elsness. Three of the cairns on this height were consider-
ably vitrified.
Such is the general history of the vitrified cairns of Orkney, which
may serve to set at rest questions which have been agitated for more
than half a century. The first is, To what uses or observances is the
effect of vitrification attributable? While the second is, To what
people is the effect attributable ? In a tone of confidence, therefore,
we are now entitled to reply, That vitrification was merely incidental
to the fires which were kindled upon beacon stations ; and that the
people who in every country which they occupied or colonised,
Unde^cribed Vitrified Fart in the Burnt Isles. 3 1 3
organized systems of beacon stations, were of Scandinavian origin.
That, from the tenth to the fourteenth century, a considerable part of
Scotland was overrun by the Scandinavians, under the various names
of Northmen and Danes,* who reciprocally became themselves liable
to invasion from other piratical tribes of the same northern origin as
themselves, and were therefore induced to institute systems of beacon-
fires, in imitation of those with which they had been fiuniliar in
Norway,
Notice of an Undescribed Vitrified Fort in the Burnt
Isles, in the Kyles of Bute.
[1824, Bart //., /. 36a]
In the month of September, 1822, when becalmed in my cutter in
the Kyles of Bute, I accidentally landed on the most northerly of the
Burnt Isles, a small, group that stretches across the Kyle^ or narrow
channd between Bute and Aigyleshira From the appearance of a
ridge, nearly covered with turf, I imagined at first that kelp had been
formerly burnt there, but on examining it more narrowly, I discovered
that it was caused by the remains of a vitrified fort
The island on which it is placed is a flat gneiss rock, with about
half an acre of vegetable soil on its summit The fort is placed at
the southern and most elevated extremity, but is not more than 12
or 15 feet above high-water mark. The walls form a circle, or rather
an irregular polygon, about 65 feet in diameter, occupying nearly the
whole of the highest end of the island. I could trace the vitrified
matter all round, and should imagine, from what remains of the
walls, that the^ were originally alx)Ut 5^ feet in thickness. They
seem to be entirely composed of the gneiss which forms the rock of
this and the surrounding islands. Many of the stones have decayed
by the action of the atmosphere, previous to vitrification, and most
of them have been acted upon by the intense heat of the fire,
although in very different degrees. Some of them are but slightly
glazed, whilst in others the felspar appears to be converted into a
dark-brown ^lass, either run into considerable masses, or into veins
alternating with the strata of quartz, which has become granular like
freestone : occasionally the vitrified matter forms a white enamel
I know not whether any more easily fusible substance has been
used as a flux, but I could not observe any appearance of breccia,
which Dr. MacCulloch, in his paper on Vitrified Forts, in the second
volume of the " Transactions of the Geological Society,'' states to
have been generally used for that purpose.
Within the walls the flat surface of the rock is exposed Near it
there is a small hollow, which yn& perhaps a well or cistern : there is
* See our Review, p. 605 [Note 36]. j
314 Scandinavian Antiquilies.
also at a little disUnce an appearance of a ditch, which, if artificial,
was probably intended to strengthen the defence on that side.
There are some peculiarities in the situation of this fort which
appear to me decisive of the question which is still agitated whether
the vitrification is the effect of accident or design. Those who
advocate the former opinion have supposed that they were produced
by ancient volcanoes— by destruction by fire — or more recently, by
the repeated action of signal fires. It is quite unnecessary to say
anything here as to their volcanic origin ;* and I think it proved by
the experiments of Dr. MacCulloch, that, from the Intensity of heat
required to melt the most fusible of the rocks, it is impossible that
any single conilagration could have produced such effects.
In an article in the ninth volume of the " Edinburgh Enc)-
clopsedia," written, I believe, by Sir George Mackenzie, these effects
are attributed " to making signals by fires," chiefly because those
hitherto known have been placed in commanding situations. I ap-
prehend, however, that this will not account for the fort in question,
because, in the first place, the situation, in a flat, surrounded on all
sides by hills of considerable elevation, does not appear at all
calculated for such a purpose ; and, in the next place, the regularity
of its form seems still more inconsistent with the effects of any acci-
dental cause. We must, therefore, I think, conclude that, in what-
ever manner these singular buildings were constructed, or for what-
ever purpose, they are the effects of design. They were probably
constructed at a period before the country was cleared of its original
forests, where abundance of fuel and ignorance of the modes of
cementing stone had induced the inhabitants to resort to the ex-
pedient of joining them by fusion (Trans. R, S. of Edinburgh, x., 79).
J. Smith.
* Since Ibis Mper wu written, the theory ol their volcanic oriein has been
revived by Dr. Hibbeit, in conaequence of an eiuninalion of the Fort of Finhavco,
in the county of Forfar. I have not Ken that foit, but I cannot imagine Ihat il
will apply 10 the one in question, which is of a regular form, and placed on the
flat lurface of a pnmilive rock. Neither can it be accounled for by supposing that
volcanic productions have been brought from a distance for the purpose of build-
ing, because both from the size of the vitrified masses, and fiom the downward
direction in which the (used matter hu run, we must conclude that the vitriAcalion
has taken place after the mills were built.
Notes.
NOTES.
(pue 24). Specnbtive philoloey U no loager allowable. The trne deriTa-
oT tbe wotd "church," u given hy Professor Skeit, ii rrom the Greek, though
noted that " the etymology hai been doubted on accoant of the lareaeti of
the Greek word aiptatif ; but it occun in the canon of the lixth Coondl, and
Jonarai^iD commenting on the panage, Mft that the nameof ofMoaJvlbr 'chuich'
•dentific examination of tbete archaic lawi.
3 (page 43). The whole of thii intereitii^ communication eontahu iuToniiatiaa
of great ralae on early pohlical life, and, in connection with it, I may refer the
reader to an article in C«ii/ZMi<»W(yi>ii<M, 1831, Part tl., pp. 111-313, reprinted
iaititGtntUmatii MagoMtnt Uirary: Arthatl^tPart L, pp. 184-188; and alio
" When he ii citing (at p. 436) the pasiagei of Scripture in which allniioo il
made to the cvitom dC loosing the shoe, as accompanying the act of investitore
into oSice, Mr. Brash leads us along with him till he makes us feel almost disap-
pointed that he has not admitted Mark L 7 and its parallels among the texts
which he has quoted. Tho«e passage* cannot be mistaken ; their plain and
generally accepted meaning is a true one. SL John the Baptiier did indeed make
me of an expression which implied deep humility ; and so we are right in inter-
preting the panages to mean that he would not have considered himself worth; to
perform even the most meniat act of service to oar Saviour ; tach an act, vis., as
the tying or the aotying of a shoe among us might be considered ; hot in the
light of Mr. Brash's commentary (shall I call it?) I, ibr one, and I dare tn h;
many besides, will sec also now, in those passages, something besides this ; there
is clearly an allusion to the practice of kxMong the sandal, or shoe, at the time of
invenitnre into office, etc, and so the passaen will be, hencclbith, somewhat
more full of meaniog to at than they were. The Baptiier signified that he was
not worthy to have been eren the foremnner of the Saviour ; not worthy either to
go before Him, or to follow Him, in any office or capacity whatever.
"On the alluHon to the custom of taking off the shoe in holy places (Josh. v.
IS I Exod. iii. 5) at p. 436, it may interest some of your readers to know that
tUs ontwaid mark of reverence is still in use in Algeria upon entering the mosques.
The shoe or slipper is invariably left at the dooc. Serious offence would be given
bf any who should presume to enter the sacred precincts in boot or shoe, and
summary ejectment would ensue. I may mention, however, by the way, that the
3i8
Notes.
iojgieiitiity of our fair country women^eqiul e$ jt is to every emergency— has con-
trived, in tome degree, to evade the stringency of this rule. In winter the cold
flagstones, even when covered with cane-matting, or with carpeting, would not be
agreeable to the constitution of European invalids ; they provide themselves, there-
fore, each with felt slippers, whidi fit close over their oidinaiy stocking ; then
over thcM they put on another wann stocking of worsted work — the more brilliant
it is in colour the better— «nd over these again they put on loose goloshes or
carriage boots of doth. These last they ostentatioudy take off and leave at the
door dT the mosque, and as thev thus walk or stand among the worshippers, they
appear to be divested of their shoes entirely, though they have a light snoe or its
equivalent underneath the worsted stockings in which alone they seem to be
standing.
" After presenting us with some examples of very ancient stone seats of honour,
Mr. Brash mentions some of mediaeval, and of yet more modern date. Allow me
to invite attention to one which I have met with ; it is of more modern date, I
imagine, than any he has mentioned. It is in the island of Malta. As you will
have anticipated, however, from my claiming for it no venr great antiquity, it is
not among those exceedingly interesting stone-circles of Hafiar Khem, or of El
Minaidra (commonly attributed to Phoenicians), in the nei«ibourhood of Casal
Krendi. In each of these circles, indeed, there are large blocks of stones, so
arranged as to make recesses, some open to the sky, others covered by large
slabs, and these recesses may, some of them, have served for seats of honour, or
for standing-places, upon occasions of ceremony. I am inclined to think they
did. It is generally considered, however, that they have all been altars for
sacrifice. 'Ais some of Uiem would seem doubtless to have been; for traces
may be seen of holes and of grooves cut in the flat altar-slabs which may have
served to drain off* the blood of the victims. So much attention, however, is just
now being paid to these stone-remains — a society b directing excavations in the
neighbourhood of them ; the Bishop of Gibraltar (Dr. Trower) and other local
archaeologists are showing such interest in them — that I will hope the pen of
some one more competent than myself may, ere long, be engaged in giving you
fuller particulars of tneir supposed past history and their present conditi<m.
"But to return to the comparatively modern stone chair in Malta, whicb I
would introduce to your notice. It is at Casal Lia, there. It serves, at present,
for the chair of the porter who receives the names of the visitors who are ad-
mitted into the S. Antonio Gardens, at the governor's country-bouse, and it may
never have served any higher purpose, before it was placed there for this, when
the Grand Master De Paulo built the palace and laid out those fine gardens. It
is a chair, however, which is not unworthy of a brief notice ; it is very capacious,
not incommodious, and it is in very good preservation, and cared for as it is at
present it is not unlikely that it may remain so for centuries.
" I am, etc. E. W."
4 (P« 57)* 1*b>s reference is to an article on " Two Days in Cornwall with the
Cambrian Archaeological Association.** The passage referring to the Mdn-an-tol
is as follows :
" On our way back across the moor we visited the M^n-an-tol. This curious
monument, as its name implies, is a stone with a hole through it. It stands
between two others, at the distance of 7 feet 10 inches from one and 7 feet 8 inches
from the other. A few yards north-west of the westernmost stone aie two others,
one fallen, the other upright ; and it seems probable that these are the only
remaining stones of a circle. The holed stone is 3 feet 6 inches high by 4 feet
3 inches in breadth at base. The hole measures in diameter on one side 2 feet
2 inches, on the other i foot 7 inches. One side may have been bevelled for some
particular purpose, or perhaps is the result of the hole having been made with
a rude instrument worked only on one side of the stone. The hole of the
Tolven, in the parish of St. Constantine, is bevelled in like manner. Superstitious
practices have been observed at these stones in modem times. Dr. Borlase has
Notes. 319
■ I r , , ,1
referred to such customs. Children were passed through the M6n-an-tol as a cure
for spinal diseases, and some amusement was aflforded at the time of our visit by
sevend of the excursionists creeping through the hole.
5 (P^ ^5)* "^^^ barrows of Dorsetshire have been described in the Gentleman* s
MoMMine LUirary : ArcMaoUgyt Part /., pp. 98-111 ; but the examples mentioned
in the text are not there described.
6 (page 67). In 1S04, Part I., p. 409, is the following communication on Kit's
Coty House :
^ In figs. 3, 4, you have a rough sketch of Kit's Coty House in two different
points of view, and thouffh not finished, pretty correct representations. Thb
monument is on the road from Rochester to Maid^itone, and about four miles
from the former place ; it consists of three stones supporting one ; the height ot
the side-supporting stones are about 6 feet, and includmg the thickness of the top
one about 7^ feet ; the latter is about 9 feet in length and 7 in breadth ; they are
supposed to be the tombs of Kentergen and Horbus, two Danish princes killed
here in battle. ** Yours, etc. H. C.*'
This is followed by another letter, 1S04, Part II., pp. 611, 612, as follows ;
"llie history of Kit's Coty House, by H. C, p. 409, is so erroneous that I must
trouble you to insert the following, by way of correction ; though I do not profess
to give even an epitome of all that has been written by different authors re-
specting this curious relick of antiquity.
"fiy 'Kentergen and Horbus, two Danish princes,' I suppose H. C. means
Catigem and Horsa, who were slain at Aylestord, where this rude structure is
situate ; but the former chieftain was a Briton, and brother to Vortimer ; and the
latter a Saxon, bearing the same affinity to Hengist : for the battle was fought
A.D. 455, three hundred years before the Danes molested this island.
" The roost popular, I do not say the best, opinion is, that Horsa was buried at
HorstCKi, a place a few miles distant ; and that Kit's Coty House was the sepulchral
memorial of Catigem ; though Mr. King labours hard to prove it a British
cromlech, used for the horrid rites of Druidical worship^ when human sacrifices
were offered ; its situation being in a beautiful amphitheatre of hills, ' from which
hills many thousands and even myriads of people might distinctly see all that passed
upon the surface of the top stone.'*
" The late Mr. Boys (wnose death I sincerely lament, having often experienced
his friendly counsel on literary subjects) thought he had discovered in the name of
Kit's Coty House a corruption of the Saxon Dib cacej hopf ue^ ' the place of
contention between Catigem and Horsa. 'f
*' This etymology, though rather fanciful, seems better founded than the supposi-
tion of Horsa's memory l^ng yet preserved in Horsted ; as villages of that name
occur in several counties, and are plainly compounded of two Saxon words,
meaning ' the place for horses ;' as distinguished from the Cow-ley, the Shep-ley,
and other allotments of our raral forefathers.
" I am also sorry I cannot praise the correctness of H. C.'s drawing. The top
stone in fig. 3 is too jagged ; and in fiff. 4 the rules of perspective and shadow
have been so little observed, that it is doubtful whether a side or back view be
intended. I should presume the latter.
"Yours, etc. William Hamper."
7 (page 71). Mr. Lukis has recently visited and described this famous monu-
ment ; and his account, printed in the Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries^
1885, vol. X., pp. 311-31^, is worth transcribing here. Mr. Lukis says :
**Ju]y 13. — From Kirkoswald I was enabled to visit this monument, which is
about three miles distant, in the parish of Little Salkeld. It belongs to a farmer
* " Munimenta Antiqua," vol. i., chap, v. f " Archaeologia," vol. xi., p^ 38.
320 Notes.
4 ll^i^W^—^^M^^^.^— ■■ » I I II II m i ■ — —i ^—M ^ I. II ■
named Sowerby, who very readily gianted me permission to make a careliil day-
bynday survey of it. I am pleased to say that the owner is much interested in its
pesenratioD, but resents any interference with his rights. He informed me that
he had received a oommunicatioo firom some London gentleman, whose name he
had forgotten, inviting him to place it under Government UDtection, but this he
dedined to do. He considered himself auite capable of looking after hu own
property, and of prosecuting anyone who sliould venture to injure the monument.
As his residence is not many yards off, he thought it was safer under his own eye
than in the care of some one, whatever hispower or authority mi^t be, who was
living hundreds of miles in the south of Efngland, and who had not any greater
interest in its conservation than he himself had, and might very possibly seldom
visit it. It seemed to me that there was a good deal of common sense in what he
said, and, as long as he continues in the same mind and his successo r s in the eitate
follow in his footsteps, the monument will be safe-guarded.
** I suppose there are very few persons interested in ancient structures who have
not heard of Long Meg and her daughters, but probably there are few who have
seen the monument and know what it is like. Gunden gives the earliest descrip-
tion of it in these words, ' At the lesse Salkeld, there bee erected, in manner of a
circle^ 77 stones, every one lo foot hig^ ; and a spBcial one by itselfe before them,
at the very entrance, riseth 15 feet in heiriit This stone, the common pe<»le,
thereby dwelling, named 'Longe Meege, like as the rest her daughters. And
within that ring or circle are heapes ofstones, under which, they say, lye covered
the bodies of men slaine. And verily there is reason to thinke that this was a
monument of some victory there achieved, for no man would deeme that they were
erected in vaine.'*
" If Camden's account be accurate, there has been a loss of ten stones since his
day. Mr. Dymond reckoned 69 stones in the year 1875, exclusive of Long Meg,
of which number 27 were standing ; and I could count 07 only last year (24 stand-
ing). Several accounts of this monument have been published, and in nearly
every one the number of the stones varies. In the latest edition of Camden they
are said to be 100 in number. Aubrey was told by a correspondent that there
were 7a Dugdale made them 20a Stukeley, 100. Smith, ir 1752, 70 principal
ones, and one or two more disputable. Hutchinson, in 177^, 67, including Long
Meg ; and lastly, Dr. Ferguson, 68, including Long Meg. It is very easy to mil into
error even in the first rule of arithmetic, and very difficult for two persons to agree
in their count of a large number of monoliths arranged in a ring, vnthout the aid of
a piece of chalk. When I was at Stonehenge I oraerved that a visitor had saved
himself from error by thus marking the stones. No material error can arise when
a methodical survey is made. The discrepancy between Mr. Dymond's and my
computation must be owing to the destruction and removal of two prostrate and
displaced stones.
''This ring is not a perfect circle, but is slightly ovate, and is erected upon
ground which slopes eently to the north and more rapidly to the north-east. The
foftiest stone (Long Me^) stands at a distance of 74 feet to the south-south-west,
outside the ring on the highest jwrt of the ground, and prolMibly formed one of the
stones of an avenue. The position of four stones (two standing and two prostrate)
attached to the ring, indicates the existence of this avenue.
" A parish road, formerly bounded on its west side by a hedge, passes through
the ring near its eastern verge ; and when it was macfe, two stones of the ring
were displaced. This road uMd to pass on the outside ; and Mr. Sowerby told me
he intended applving for permission to carry it alonj^ its old course at his own cost.
*' Camden and Ihigdale speak of two cairns within the area of the ring, and
Stukeley seems to have observed traces of them. In 1773 there was not the least
appearance of them ; but there is no doubt that they once existed, and that we
have here another example of my iron-railii^ theory on a laige scale. On Eskdale
• u
Brit." Cumberland, p. 777.
Notes. 321
Moor, in the same county, there is an ovate ring, 103 feet in longest diameter,
enclosing five cairns ; and near Keswick, another such monument, 107 feet in
longest diameter, encloses a rectangular chamber of Dolmen character. Mr.
Dymond states that * within the area of the peristalith (near Keswick) is a shallow
circular trench, 13 feet in diameter, probably the remains of a barrow,' but I did
not observe it.
" Long Meg is slightly inclined, and its perpendicular height is 12 feet 6 inches.
Upon its eastern fiace there are three cups with concentric rings. In 1835, Sir J.
G. Wilkinson noticed only one, which is depicted in Sir J. Y. Simpson's work on
cup and ring markings (Proc. Soc Antiq. Scot, vol. vL, Appendix, PI. VII., and
also in Joum. Brit. /^haeoL Assoc xvii. 1 18).
*' In former times there were two smaller stone-encircled cairns in the locahty ;
one has disappeared, the other is near a fence in a field at a short distance to the
north-east of Long Meg and her daughters. I was not able to make a survey of
it in consequence of its filthy condition, the farm-labourers having converted it
into a cloaca. By the kindness of Mr. Dymond, who has sent me a copy of his
survey, I produce it this evening. The monument is sadly dilapidated, and con-
sists of eleven stones (five erect), surrounding a cist which has oeen deprived of
its cover. Two of the stones are sculptured with cups and rings, which have been
figured in Sir J. Simpson's work, and are shovm in Mr. Dymond's plan.
8 (page 75). Mr. Lukis also reports on this monument in the Proceedings of the
SocU^ of Antiquaries^ 1885, vol. x., pp. 313-320 ; and the following is a tran-
script of his valuable note :
'* August 29. — I arrived at Shap, in Westmoreland, which Dr. Stukeley visited,
in company with Roger Gale, in 1725. The mention of his name, in connection
with Shap, will lead you to expect a repetition of his peculiar views. Accordingly
you will not be surprised to near this remark, ' Abury is not the only temple in
Britain formed on this design of the Circle and Serpent. I saw another at Shap ;'
but it is no matter for regret that he adds, ' I had no opportunity of examining it.'
*' I have transcripts of three letters relating to this monument, one written by
Stukeley to Gale, dated Stamford, September 24, 1743 ; and two by Thomas
Routh, of Carlisle, to Stukelev, dated May 7 and October 17, 1743, which I be-
lieve have never been printed. They show the very slight evidence upon which
Stukeley rested his theory; and further, the small probability that an avenue, such
as he believed to exist, existed at all.
'* In the first of these letters there is this paragraph: 'I have got a vast drawing
and admeasurement from Mr. Routh, of Carlisle, of the stones at Shap, which I
desired from him. They cive me so much satisfaction that verily I shall call upon
you next year to take another religious pilgrimage with me thither. I find it to be,
what I always supposed, another hu^e serpentine temple like that of Abury. The
measure of what are left extends a mile and a half, but, without doubt, a g^eat deal
of it has been demolished by the town, abbey, and by everything else thereabouts.'
" You will bear in mind that Stukeley, wiUi Gale, was at Shap in 1725, and his
volume on Avebury was printed in 1743 ; and it is in this volume that we meet
with the first quotation given above. It does not appear that he and Gale ever
visited Shap again, for Gale died in July, 1743.
'* In the second letter from Carlisle, Routh writes to Stukeley : 'Agreeable to
your request to my father, I have endeavoured at something of the situation of the
feat stones at Shapp. Beginning at the place they made their remarkable turn,
measured their respective distances, greatest heights, and largest circumference
(which I have set opposite to each stone), excepting the very last, which appeared
to be between three and four hundred yards from my last station, and about the
same distance from the abbey. The numbers, added together, make near a mile
and a half, which perhaps may have been the original length. The stones are of
a very particular sparkling grit, with large veins of a reddish colour, and 'tis said
will take a very beautiful polish. The neighbouring fells or moors, I am told,
alx>und with such ; and I observed great numbers of them, though small, scatteretl
VOL. VI. 21
322 Notes.
up and down throughout the fields adjoining to the row of ttones, which probably
may have remained after the work was finidied.
** ' Beyond, where the stones make their turn, there are four ovals or circles of
small stones, and seemingly an appearance of the douUe row having been coo-
tinued to them, but the stones are only small, so that they are not to be depended
on ; there is likewise a small circle of them beyond the brook. Several of the
stones have been broken and removed to furnish materials for the walls along their
course ; and one of the largest I saw v^as shattered all to pieces with gunpowder
about a year ago, which is the reason they stand much more regular before they
reach the town and enclosures than af^er. There remains not the least tradition
for what purpose or use these stones have been erected, nor seems to have been
any for an a^ or two ago ; for in an old description of the counties of England,
and which a person at Shapp obliged me with a sight of, I met with the following
account in Westmoreland : *' It is thought that some notable act of atchievement
hath been performed here, for that there be huge stones in form of pyramides,
some 9 foot high and 14 foot thick, ranged for a mile in length directly in a row
and equally distant, which might seem to have been there purposely pitched in
memonr thereof; but what that act was is not now known, but quite worn out of
remembrance by time's injury."
"'I took notice of one or two that were fallen that their lower parts have been
smoothed for a base to stand on. There are several stones, though of no great
bigness, of this same grit, which is very particular, for a considerable way on the
road towards Penreth, seemingly linesJ, but whether placed with design or natural
I am not able to determine.
** ' I am informed that near a moss between Kirkoswald and Brampton there is
a similar circle* of stones to these at Salkeld, but less in proportion.
*' ' I shall be extremely glad if what I have done should in the least answer the
expectations of your reverence, but am much af&aid, it being the first thing of the
kind I have attempted, it will be scarce possible not to have fallen into numberless
faults and errors ; but I hope, as it will come into so eminent a hand, thev will
easily be rectified so as to become intelligible. I shall be glad to be fiivoured with
your commands in whatever alterations or re-examinations you chuse to have made,
which I shall execute with the greatest pleasure, as well as any other command
you will please to lay upon, Rev<* Sir, your most obedient and most humble ser-
vant, Tho" Routh.'
'* ' P.S. — The interval between the opposite rows was about 24 yards, which I
have doubled at the turn of the stones, fearing it would otherwise have appeared too
much crouded.'
" In the third letter, dated Thirsk, October 17, 174J, Routh again writes to
Stukeley : 'Agreeable to your commands I went and reviewed the great stones at
Shapp, which appear almost exactly conformable to the sketch you were pleased to
give us of Abury. The southern avenue, where the smaller circles are, terminates,
according to your opinion, on high ground, and the northern or lower towards the
Abbey. Near the middle of the town of Shapp, the ground rises with a consider-
able ascent, which on the south and west sides seems somewhat circular, but not
the least appearance of a ditch and vallum on the outside of it that I could dis-
cover. Nay, even here the large stones preserve their parallelism, crossing the
highest ^ound near the west limits, and durecting their course towards the Abbey,
nigh which they make a gentle turn to the east, where probably the tail of the
snake mav have been. Two laree stones which yet remain, and are a considerable
distance m>m the rest, seem much to favour such a supposition, from their having
the appearance of a circular situation. Though even nigh a mile beyond where
the inhabitants imagine the row of stones ended, I found several of the sanae sort
* This is probably an allusion to a circle midway between Kirkosvrald and
Brampton, of^ which only one stone remains, as I was informed by a fiimner, who
assured me he knew the place well.
Notes. 323
of stones standing parallel, and still declining to the north-west (particularly on
one side there were three very large ones placed triangularly), pointing to a piece of
high ground, which seemed to have been surroundra with somewhat like a ditch
and ^lum, but its distance is so fiir from the rest that I was not able to make
anything of it
" ' I could neither find nor hear of such a thing as a tumulus on the west side.
The Force beck rises about a mile to the eastvmrd of the avenue, which it crosses
and fiUls into the river Lowther about the same distance to the westward. . . .
'"If one tfiay presume from appearances, there seem to have been several other
avenues of lesser stones of the same grit, besides the great one. One is to be
traced a considerable way towards Penreth. Tradition reports it reached as
fiur as Arthur's Round Table ; and Mayberg, you know, sir, is in that neighbour-
hood. • . •
"'I should have been glad that my experience would have enabled me to have
answered your expectations more agreeable to my wishes ; but, as I had never
seen anythmg of this kind till the other day that I had the pleasure of inspecting
your curious drau^ts of Abury and Stonehense, at his honour Gale's, I am aflraid
the best account I shall be able to give will scarce bear a perusal without very
great indulgence.'
*' It will be well to consider what this evidence in &vour of a serpentine avenue
amounts to. You will observe that Routh looked at the stones with the bias of
Stttkeley's opinions ; that he also says the fields adjacent to the rows abounded
with boulders ; that in one part there was only an appearance of the double row
having been continued, where the stones were so small that they were not to be
depended on ; that great numbers of the stones of the avenue had been demolished
and removed to build walls along their course ; and finally, he confesses that as
his survey was the first thing of the kind he had ever attempted, he may have
fallen into numberless fiiults and errors \ moreover, he adds in a postscript tnat he
had not strictly conducted his survey, for that he had doubled the interval between
the opposite rows ' at the turning of the stones, fearing it would appear too much
crouded.'
'* Stukdey was so satisfied with Routh's plan, because it seemed to confirm his
theory, that I am the more sceptical with regard to the fidthfulness of the survey.
" Now, from my knowledge of the locality, I venture to assert that Routh, with
his inexperience as a surveyor, and without proper surveying instruments, could not
by any possibility have produced a plan that would frithiully convey an idea of the
monument The ground is very undulatin^^ and only a short distance in the
direction which the stone rows are said to have taken is visible from any one point.
At the present time there are two boulders near the railway station, which do not
look as if they had ever been set up ; and a third stone, near a bam, on the west
side of the village road, at a consiaerable distance from them — at such a distance
that I cannot imagine how they can have been associated in an avenue, or with
each other in any manner. Then, in the second grass field, called the Band-Reld,
behind the King^s Arms Hotel, which is some distance off in Shap Street, there is a
large boulder lyinsr on the ground, known as the Druid's Stone, 8 feet 9 inches
long and 7 feet wide, round which the village fife and drum band lused to practise,
and upon which the drummer stood. A mile away from the first-mentioned
boulders, in a north-west direction, we come to the only erect monolith (7 feet
9 inches high, from 4 to 5 feet wide at the ground level, and 7 feet 9 inches wide
at the top), set up on its smaller end. Upon its north-western face it bears a small
circular depression or basin, 5 inches in diameter, artificially made. This is called
the Guggleby Stone. In the adjoining grass field, following the same compass
direction, there is a large prostrate, mis2iapen stone (10 feet long, 5 feet wide),
and upon its broad flat end there is a ring 8 inches in diameter, enclosing a cup
2 inches in diameter, and another circular depression or basin, 6 inches in diameter,
with a doubtful cup in its centre. Half-a-mile further in a grass field there are two
large prostrate boulders 248 paces apart, one being 13 feet long 6 feet 6 inches
2I-Tf2
3 24 Notes.
wide, 8 feet 6 inches thick, the other lo feet 6 inches in length, and 8 feet, wide
Mid three partially buried boulders in the same fidd.
''Supposing, therefore, all these stones to have belonged to the monument as
seen and laid down in a plan by Routh for Stukeley's informationy and said to have
been i) mile in length, there exist in 1884 eteven stones, whereof one only is
erect, and these stones plac«l at such wide intervals and in such positions that
it is scarcely credible how they can have formed part of an avenue composed of a
double row.
" Pennant, in his ' North Tour,' L 297, speaks of it as ' a stupendous monument
of antiquity, called Carl-Lofts,' composed of two lines of huge obelisks of unhewn
granite, which commence about i) miles south of the town of Shap, and extend in
a north-west direction into the demesne of Shap Grange. He says that the re-
mains of it, in the best preservation, are on the common at its south end, where
there is a circle of similar stones 18 feet in diameter, and where the space between
the lines is 88 feet ; and that the lines gradually conver^ towards the village <^
Shap, where the distance decreases to 59 feet ; and that it is probable they met
and concluded in a point forming a wed^.
" There is not a vestige of an avenue and small circle south of Shap, at the pre-
sent time, but about three-quarters of a mile in this direction, and close to the
railway fence, there are six prostrate boulders, part of a lam drde which was
destroyed when the railway was constructed and carried throu^ it.
" Although Pennant goes into detail in describing the avenue, and therefore
induces a ^lief that a double row of monoliths was seen by him, I cannot avoid
thinking that his imagination was influent by Stukdey's published conjectures
respecting Avebury, and this thought is suggested by the words, ' It is probable
that they (the lines) met and concluded in a point forming a wedge,' which yon
will remember Stukeley had said was the form of the tail which he invented and
tacked on to the Avebury circle in order to complete his serpent
papers.
sim]
tine temple at Shap.*
" Mr. Fergttsson (' Rude Stone Monuments,' p. 120), after having visited Shap,
has expressed in a few words the great improbability oif the existence of an avenue.
Owing to their ruined state, he writes, the remains of Shap are difficult to
describe. ' They were, however, visited by Stukeley in 172 c, but he complains
that it rained aU the time that he was there, and rain on a bleak exposed moor,
like Shap, is singularly inimical to antiquarian pursuits.' (See Iter Boreale.)
" This is quite sufficient, in my opinion; to dispose of Stukeley and his fiuidfiil
conjectures. Mr. Fergusson goes on to say : ' The remains were also described
by Camden (" Brit." Cough's edit iii. 401), but not apparently from personal obser-
vation, and others have described them since, but tlie destruction has been so
rapid, the village being almost entirely built out of them, that it is now extremely
difficult to ascertain what they really were. All, however, are acreed that tlw
principal monument was an aJienment, according to some of a double row of
stones, of which others can onW trace a single row.' By an indulgence of the
imagination I might bring myself to accept the ' single row ' view. 'So far as I
could make out on the spot,' continues Mr. Fergusson, ' it commenced near a spot
called the Thunder -stone in the North, where there are seven large stones in a fidd ;
six are arranged as a double row ; the seventh seems to commence a single line ;
from this, all the way to a place at the southern extremity of the villa^, called
Karl-Lofls, single stones may be traced at intervals in apparently a perfectly
straight line ; and still beyond this, at a fiirm^rd called Brackenbyr, Mr. Simp-
son fanded he could, in 1859, trace the remains of a cirde 400 feet in diameter,
with a large obelise in the centre (Archseol. Journal, xviii. 29). I confess I was
not so fortunate in 1869, and I also differ from him as to the position of the stone
row. He seems to fancy, from the description of Stukeley, that it was situated to
Notes. 325
the southward of Karl -Lofts, though he could not detect any traces of it. Mv
impression is that it commenced with the circle of Brackenbyr, immediately soutn
of Karl-Lofts, and proceeded in a north-westerly direction for nearly i^ miles to
the Thunder-stone, as before mentioned.'
^ " The evidence, so far, is not strong in favour of a double row, or even of a
single row, and as regards the great circle there is no satbfactory evidence. M^
own observations certainly tally with those of Mr. Fergusson, except in one parti-
cular, where he speaks of the partially destroyed circle close to the railway fence,
as occupying *the same relation to the stone row as the circle at Merivale Bridge '
on Dartmoor, because the latter circle is not erected beyond the point where the
^venue terminates, but at a distance to the south. This, however, is a matter of
little consequence, for in neither case has the circle any close connection with the
stone rows.
"I have gone at some length into the question of the Shap monument, because
it is a matter of some archaeological importance to sift the evidence for and against
its existence.
" My own impression is that it is possible there may have been both a double
row and a single row, but not as being parts of one system, and that Shap was a
necropolis, extending over a considerable area. Several circles have been men-
tionea by writers ; and at Gunnerkeld^ at a distance of about i) miles north-
east from Shap, there b a ruined cairn with two concentric rings of stones around
it, which resembles, in many respects, the Scotch cairns I have described in the
foregoing pages. There are eighteen stones of the outer ring remaining, of which
two onlv are erect ; and thirty-one of the inner, of which one is erect, but leans
outwards. The ring is ovate, and about 106 feet in longest diameter. A careful
plan of this monument, together with a descriptive account by Mr. Dymond, is
printed in the Transactions of the Cumberlana and Westmoreland Antiquarian
Society, 1879^ as well as in the Journal of the British Archsolopical Association,
xxxiv. 31. Like the Scotch examples, this caim has lieen used as a convenient
quarry for walling purposes, and the mound is nearly obliterated. Mr. Dymond
has ' no hesitation in expressing his belief that the prostrate stones of the two rings
were never set up on end,' in which opinion I do not concur. He thinks there can
be no doubt that it was a stone cinctured sepulchral barrow."
In 1844 it was threatened with destruction, as the following note will show.
It occurs in the Gtntleman^s MagaatUf 1844, part iL, p. 381 :
'* Notwithstanding the alleged increase of good taste at the present day, I find it
is the intention of the projectors of the Lancaster and Carlisle Railway to carry
their line throu|g;h, and destroy, a most interesting remnant of antiquity, the re-
mains of a Druidical Temple situated in a field, the property of the Earl of Lons-
dale, on the road from Kendal to Shap, and about 2 miles from the latter place.
I am surprised that the noble Earl snould permit such barbarity, with such in-
fluence as he possesses over the Company.
"The aocompanyinfi; sketch (Plate II.) of this curious monument, which will
probably be in a very snort time no longer in existence, may be interesting to your
readers. It consists of thirteen stones of Shap granite, the largest of which is
7 or 8 feet high, placed in a circle about 40 feet m diameter.
Yours, etc. Druid."
9 (pAgc 77)« The title of this book is as follows : Choir Gaur, the grand
Orrery of the antient Druids^ commonly coiled Stonehenge^ on Salisbury Plain^
astronomically explained^ and mathematically proved to be a Temple erected in the
earliest ages for observing the Motions of the heavenly Bodies, Illustrated with
three copper plates. By Dr. John Smith. White, Horsfield, 177a 4to.
Mr. Goueh says : **Dr. Smith, driven from his inoculating house by the rustics
of Benscomo, to amuse himself with examining these stones, presents the public
with an improvement on this part of Mr. Wood s hypothesis, or rather with a clear
view of the place under this new idea, divested of all the parade of hislorical illus-
326
Notes.
tntion from the cosmogony and theoloQr of the eastern and other nations. After
S'mng, in fifty pa^cs, an abstract of what other wiiten had advanced on Stone-
enge, not exceptmg even that ' fool's bolt ' shot at it by Gibbons, with as little
probability as the reveries of Gefirey of Monmouth, Sommes, or Bolton, spends
fourteen pages more in describing the present state of the stones, and his applica-
tion of them. The doctor has given exact measures of the outward stones now
standing, which bein^ unequal, could never answer to an architectorical plan. As
to the name ' Choir Gaur,* he finds in Calafio's Hebrew Lexicon ' Oior ' or
*Cor' rendered *G>ncha Marina,' which he confines here to 'Cancer,' from
the oval form of its shell resembline the choir of a church. ' Gaur ' in Irish,
* Gauvr ' in Armoric, and * Gafr ' in Welsh, signify ' Caper,' an he-goat : So
that we have in this name the two solstices 'Cancer' and 'Capricorn.' He
supposes the name of Stonehenge arose from the fall and poise of the great impost
of the Trilithon, representing vtut son, which hangs in equilibrio across the altar
movable by hand."
to (page 77). The title of this well-known work is as follows : Munimenta
Aniiqua ; or, Observathns on arUieni Castles ; including Remarks on the whole
Progress of Architecture^ ecclesiastical as tuell as militcuy^ in Great Britain ; and
on the Corresponding Changes in Manners^ Languages^ and Customs; tending both
to illustrate modem History and to elucidate many interesting Passagts in various
antient Classic Authors. By Edward King, Esq., F.R.S. and A.S.
Mr. Gough says : " llie nrst volume of this work, which seems likely to grow to
a voluminous extent, was published in 1799^ and treated solely of the earliest
periods in Britain, before the invasion of the Romans, ' the days of primaeval
simplicity and rudeness, the days of Druidism,' and of patriarchal manners, in
treating of which the author has been led very much, oy conclusions even on
different grounds, to agree with the learned Doctor Stukeley, and to add new and
additional light to the observations of Rowland, Borlase, and odkers."
IX (page 80). There is nothing of importance to note in this communication by
Mr. Fosbroke. It forms one of a series of papers entitled " Latent Antiquities
from the MS. collection of the Rev. T. D. Fosbroke, M.A., F.A.S., Na IIL,
Cyclopean Architecture," and is printed in the Gentleman^ s Magaune for 1816,
part I, pp. 509-511.
X3 (pap^e 80). These and the other communications on Stonehenge are not worth
printing in the text. Taking them seriatim, they are as follows :
1752 (pp. 373, 374). " Further Remarks on Long M^ and her Daughters" (see
ante, p. 72) includes a paragraph on Stonehenge, which, however, is of no
importance.
1774 (p. 198-200). " New Observations on the Antiquity of Stonehenge," by T. J.
It is here suggested that the larger stones came from the neighbourhood.
1778 (p. 168). ** Strutt's Observations on Stonehenge," extracted from Joseph
Strutt's Manners and Customs of England.
1796 (p. 648). A letter from "Junius, ' suggesting plans to be made.
1797 (p. 75). This passage is worth quoting. It is as follows : " A considerable
change has taken place in the position of the stones, which form an extra-
ordinary relic of the ancient superstitions of our countrymen. This is
attributed to the rapid thaw which succeeded a very hard frost. Some people
employed at the plough, near Stonehenge, January 3, remarked that three
of the large stones had fallen, and were apprised of the time of their fall by
a very sensible concussion, or Jarring of the ground. These stones prove
to be the western of those pairs, with their imposts, which have had the
appellation of Trilithon ; and had long deviatcxi from its true perpendi-
cular. There were, originallv, five of these trilithons, two of which are
even now still remaining in their ancient state. It b remarkable that no
account has ever been recorded of the falling of the others, and, perhaps, no
allecation has been made in the appearance of Stonehenge for three cen-
Notes. 327
tunes prior to the present tremendous downfall. The impost, which is the
smallest of the three stones, is supposed to weigh twenty tons. They all
now lie prostrate on the eround, and have received no injury from their
aerial separation. They fell flat westward, and levelled with the ground
a stone also of the second circle that stood in the line of their precipita-
tion. From the lower ends of the supporters bein^ now exposed to view,
their prior depth in the jpround is satisfactorily ascertamed : it appears to have
been about six feet. The ends, however, having been cut oblique, neither
of them was, on one side, more than a foot and a half deep. Two only of
the five trilithons, of which the adytum consisted, are now, therefore, in
their original position. The destruction of any part of this grand oval
we must particularly lament, as it was composed of the most stupendous
materials of the whole structure."
1800 (p. 1062). A review of Archaologia^ vol. xiii.
1801 (p. 916). A review of Warner's Excursions from Bath,
1806 (part ii., p. 600). By "William Hamper,' is accompanied by a drawing of
the monument previous to the fall of some of the principal stones.
18 10 (part i., p. 344). A quotation in reviewing Biglana's Historical View of (he
World*
1818 (part L, p. 57). A quotation from Marshall's Review of the Reports of the
Board of Agriculture.
1821 (part ii., pp. 498-499). *' Old Sarum and Stonehenge accurately described."
Anonymous.
1823 (part i., pp. 508-511). "Observations on Stonehenge," by Edward Duke.
1827 (part i., pp. 406-407). "On the Etymology of Stonehenge/* by W. A.
Miles.
1827 (part i., pp. 483-486). "On the Supposed Druidical Monuments in Wilt-
shire," by Edward Duke.
1827 (part i., pp. 578-579). " Stonehenge,'* bv Edward Duke.
1S33 (p<^ ii*> PP« 452, 453). " Stonehenge illustrated by Geology," by the Rev.
W. D. Conybeare ; a paper read More the Bristol Philosophical Society.
1834 (part i., pp. 174-175). "Stonehenge," by F. D. ; a criticism of Mr. Cony-
oeare's theories.
13 (page 87). These communications on Stonehenge are valuable as descriptions
of wluit the place has been at various dates. As to its ori|[in, it is now pretty
generally recognised to be a monument of the bronze period ; and Mr. Boyd
Dawkins, in his Earfy Man in Britain^ pp. 372-375, may be considered to give the
best summary^ of modern scientific opinion on this subject. Dr. Guest's Origines
Celtiae^ vol. li., pp. 215-217, should also be consulted.
M (page 96). The communications to the Athemeum are as follows :
1865, Dec. 23 (pp. 888, 889). " Avebury," by Tames Fergusson.
(page 52)* "Stonehenge and Avebury," by James Fergusson and
Hodder M . Westroi
1866, Jan. 6 (pp. 18, 19). "Secret of the Druidical Stones,'* by Sir John Lubbock.
Jan. 13
Ider M. Westropp.
Jan. 20 (pp. 95, 96). " Secret of the Druidical Stones," by Six John Lub«
bock and " another correspondent."
Jan. 27 (p. 136). " Stonehenge and Avebury," by Sir John Lubbock, James
Fergusson, and Thomas Wright.
Feb. 3 (pp. 172, 173). "Stonehenge," by Sir John Lubbock and Thomas
Wrigbt.
Feb. 10 (p. 207). " Stonehenge," by James Fergusson.
Feb. 17 (p. 239). *' Roman Road and Silbury Hill," by John Tyndall.
15 (page no). The derivation of " cromlech," according to Professor Skeat, is
merely borrowed from the Welsh cromlech^ an incumbent flagstone ; com]X)uncled
from crom^ bending, bowed — hence, laid across ; and llech^ a Hat stone, flagstone,.
t»
tf
It
328
Notes.
l6(p. 113). This account is to be found in GentUnuuCs Magmine for 1837,
Part II., pp. 575-577, signed A. J. K.
27 (p- 115)* This has now been partly accomplished bv Sir John Lubbock's
Ancient Monuments Act. This was passed in 1855, and the monuments therein
protected are described in Our AncUnt Monuments and the Lands around them^
188O) by Charles Philip Kainsjackson, with a preface by Sir John Lubbock.
X8 (page^ 116). This volume of the Spalding Club is Stewart's Sculptured
Stones of Scotland, The stone at Migvie is engraved on page 40 and plate IxxviiL
of this valuable work.
19 (page 1 16). The stones of the Peruvians here referred to are thus described :
*' An Account of the Tombs of the Ancient Indians of Quito in Peru, and of the
Curiosities found therein," accompanied by a plate*
ao ({Mge 138). Caesar's passa^ across the Thames has frequently been dis-
cussed. The Gentleman^s Ma^aztne contains some communications thereon, and
these will be included in the volume of the Gentleman^ s Magazine Library dealing
with Roman Remams isi Britain, Dr. Guest, whose opinion carries great weight,
declares for Coway Stakes. See his Ori^ities Celtiar^ vol. ii., p. 382.
ax (page 162). This MS. is in the Bodleian Library, and though it has been
frequently used by the editors of Aubrey's Collections for Wilts and others of
Aubrey's works, it has never, so far as I can ascertain, been printed entire.
a2 (page 167). Mr. Elton has discussed the subject of the earl^ historical con-
dition of Britain in his (>rit^itts of English History ^ and the following passage from
the discussion on Mr. Hunt's paper may be worth some attention :
** Mr. Smirke said that he had examined with some degree of care the different
public records which were likely to throw light on the employment of the Jews in
the workings for tin. From a very early date the selling of tin was subject to a
right of pre-emption ; and he had very little doubt that the Jevfs purchased that
pre-emption from the Crown, and thus they were allowed to trade in tin, but he
did not think they were ever actually employed in digging for it ; at least, there
was no proof of it. The earliest records we have of Sie Jews dealing in tin are
of the reign of Edward I., and these were continued in the reign of EUlward II.
and Edward III., and subsequently to a late period. From that time we have a
regular series of documents enabling us to state the quantity of tin obtained from
Devon and Cornwall. The quantity obtained in Devon was then much greater
than from Cornwall, because the tithe of the Bishop of Exeter was fixed in respect
of tin at a very early date, and the amount was much higher for Devon than Corn-
wall, whereas now the quantity from the former was not one-sixth part of the
latter. In the public records of the time of Richard I. there was a cunous collec-
tion of regulations for the coinage and sale of tin. He did not think that these
were generallv known, though they had been printed, lliey existed in the form
of a book which was kept in the Court of Exchequer, called the Black Book.
That, however, was not the earliest document on that subject. The trade in tiii
was not mentioned in the Domesday Survey, and there was a reason for that.
That survey was directed for the purpose of ascertaining the value of the estates
of the country for the purpose of taxation, and was for the King's use; but tin
was considered a royal property, and consequently it was not likely to be noticed
in the survey, although probably it had been worked by the Saxons, llie earliest
of our public records which contained a reference to tin were of the reigns of
Henry I. and Henry II., in a series of documents which consisted of the annual
returns of the Sheriffs. With respect to the intercourse of the Phoenicians with
Cornwall, he did not consider that the image of the bull which had been produced
afforded decisive evidence of that people having traded there. Mr. Birch, who
was a great authority, pronounced it to be of Oriental type, and connected with
Phoenician or Carthaginian worship. Bui sup}>osin^ thai this opinion was correct,
Notes. 329
it did not establish any connection between Britain and the Phoenicians, as it
might easilv have been dropped by one of the Roman legionaries. We knew
nearly all the legions of Rome that were in this country ; and by long investiga-
tion we were able to state where nearly all of them were stationed. We also knew
that in these legions there were troops drawn from various countries, and they
would have with them the representatives of every kind of worship under the
sun ; so we could easily imagine that one of them might have dropped this little
idol which he had used in his worship. With respect, however, to Phoenician
commerce with the Cassiterides, it was quite within compass to suppose that those
who had a superficial knowledge of a country might easily make the mistake of
calliitt^ what they saw islands, which consisted in reality of the mainland, or a few
islancu off the mainland. Columbus himself made nearly the same mistake on his
first voyage to America.
" Dr. Barham did not know whether the attention of the members of the Asso-
ciation had been called to the old opening at the* foot of Cam Brea during their
recent visit,* but if not, it ought to have been, as it was of great interest. Sir
Gardner Wilkinson considered that it was Roman work, and it was undoubtedly a
striking example of the engineering skill employed in mining operations in this
country at an early date."
^ (page 174). The burial of man and horse b a Scandinavian custom.
Examples were given in G€ntU$nan*s Magaune Library^ Archaohgf, Port /.,
D. 123, and some further notes from the GttUUmofis Magaaine are given in the
Notes to the same volume, pp. 310, 311. Cf. also p* 303 of the present volume, and
Proceedings ^ the Society of Anti^uarieSy vol. x. (1885), p. 349. In GtmtlemeuCs
Magaaine^ 1S43, P* ^40» is the following instance :
" Some men digging for gravel in a field in Factory Lane, Driffield, Yorkshire,
in the occupation of Air. Sawden Davison, lately discovered nine human skeletons,
of unusually large size. On puttingtogether the bones of one of them it was found
to measure seven feet in height. The skeleton of a horse was found at the same
time. The bones were aeam committed to their native clay. In a plain com-
mencing near Wetwanc^ about six miles distant, and some part of it running in a
line almost parallel with the IMffield becks, and ending near Bell Mills, human
bones and warlike implements are often plou^ed out and dug up, and it is reason-
able to suppose that tne tract in question has at some time formed the site of an
encampment, and probably of some deadly engagement."
34 (page 217). Of&*s Dike is discussed by Dr. Guest in his Origines Celtica^
vol iL, pp. 273, 276.
25 (psge 222). No answer appears to have been made to this appeal. Later
authorities have decided the so-called Devil's Dyke to be "clearly a work of
defence a^nst enemies advandne from the fens, and as a defence to the East
Anglians it was of priceless value. The name is probably a Christian version of
Woden's Dyke, or Wansdyke.— Green's Making of England^ p. 53. In the
Gentleman* s Aiaganne for 1845, P<"^ ^m P- 38* J. P. suggests a derivation for
Devil's Dyke from Diphwysy a steep place or precipice ; and A. J. K., in 1845,
part L, pp. 267, 268, confutes thb derivation, ana adds :
** How will the British word signifying a steep precipice or profundity be ap-
plicable to upright stones, and other objects by no means to be classed under such
a description ? Four huge stones, of an upright form, near Boroughbridge, in
Yorkshire, are called the Devifs Bolts or Arrows^ as having been projected from
the bow of the arch-fiend. Three upright stones at Stanton Harcourt in Oxford-
shire are called the Devifs Quoits^ tne disks he is supposed to have used at the
^;ame. The term devifs highway ^ given to many roads of the Romans in Britain,
IS of too frequent occurrence to need particular specification. It may be added to
my notes on the Devil's Dyke that tnere is a huge artificial mound at Thetford,
* On Wednesday, Aug. 27. See GeiUUman^i Magazine^ Nov., 1862, )). 573.
3 JO Notes.
fonned, the country people ny, by the devil icrmping his shoes after he had dug his
dyke on Newmarket Heath.
** I do not ooosider the deriration given by your correspondent for the Devil's
Punch Bowl on the Portsmouth Road by any means happy, dipkwys^ steep, pnf^ a
bowl or hollow place. This huge bowl Ming found empty, some jovial saikv.
travelling, I suppose, on the Portsmouth coach, added the/iMiM.
" In speaking of Graham's D^ke, I should not have omitted to mendoD the
rampart called Grimsditch, crossmg the Ronuin Road from Okl Sarum to Dor-
chester.
" I am happry to observe that in the Additions to Camden's ' Britannia,' by
Gibson, a hint is afforded in corroboration of my suggestion that the Devil's Dyke
in Cambridgeshire may be a Roman work. * It is said that in digging throqg^
the Devil's Ditch on Newmarket Heath, near Ixning, they met with some ancient
pieces. If they are still preservfd, it is probable they would afford us some light
who weie the authors of that vast work. A late author has affirmed that they
bore the inscriptions of divers Roman emperors, but upon what authority I know
not.**
" The day may not be far distant when the Roman origin of this stupendous
fortification ma^ be demonstrated to ereater certainty ; but, however that ma^ be,
it will still retam the mysterious appellation conferred on it by popular superstitioo."
a6 (paee 337). The latest authority upon this remarkable monument of anti-
r*^y is Mr. E. A. Freeman, who in his Engiisk Tntms ami Districts devotes a
pter to Wareham.
37 (page 333). A needless amount of discussion has taken place on this battle-
place. In the Anii^Hory^ 1885, vol. xii, po. 168-171, is an article, and some
correspondence followed this. The GeniUmasCs Magaune^ 1838, part ii,
PP* 40*500^ gives in parallel columns the Anglo-Saxon original, Ellis s literal
rendering, and Boswortn*s literal version of the Ode on Atheistany Victory, and
Dr. Guest disnisses the Brnnanburgh War-Song in 1848, part ii., pp. 36-39.
36 (page 343). See Aubrey's CoUections fir fViits^ pp. 14-16, for some tradi-
tions in his day as to the place of St. Oswalas death.
99 (pages 360 and 375). The subject of the building of churches in wood or
stone was discussed very elaborately in the GentUman^s Magauru for 1863 and
1863, extending over several volumes, and these articles will be reprinted in the
volume of the GtntUmafCsMagaMine Lihrary dealing with English architecture.
30 (page 373). The following note is from 1844, part ii., p. 533 :
" 5>ome members of the Cambridge Camden Society, who have been touring
through the north and east of Lincolnshire, have sent reports to their society of
the discovery of seven Saxon towers : St. Martin's, Waith ; SL Giles, Scartho ;
St. Mary's, Clee ; Holy Trinity, Swallow ; St. Nicholas, Cabum ; St. Mary's,
Rothwell; and St. John's, Nettleton. These parishes He near the high road
between Louth and Grimsby. They state that the fouls at Waith, Scartho,
HoUon, Caburn, and Clee are apparently all as old as the towers. They are rude
cylindrical stones, with some coarse sculptured ornament round the top. The
tower at Rothwell is, perhaps, the most complete example of this style. The
belfry windows all remain in their original conaition. The masonry is very rough
sandstone, with large quoins. All the towers are of two stages, and have neither
pilasters nor staircase. They also state that the condition of the Lincolnshire
churches in the Wolds, and especially near Spilsby, is most deplorable. The
state of dilapidation, neglect, and utter desecration into which tney have been
suffered to fall must be seen to be credited. Many of them are brick rooms in the
Pagan style, rebuilt in the last century ; some are quite modem, literally of no
style at all. The parishes of Raithby, East Keal, Hundleby, Great and Little
♦ Gibson's ••Camden," p. 379.
Notes. 331
- ' . _ 1 •- ------ — . . — . —
Steeping, Firsb^, Irby, Gunby, Langton, Ashby, Scremby, and Aswardby, inay
be quoted as verifying their remarks ; and the &ct is noticed by them in the hope
that the authorities ^ look into the matter."
31 (pa^ 276). Bowles' Parochial History of Brtmhill in ike County of Wilts
was published in 1828, Sva
There seem to be several mistakes in the use of the Anglo Saxon letters. They
are printed correctly in Weever, but wrpngly in the GentUmat^s Magaum, Mr.
Danby Fry has kindly supplied me with the following note :
E (G), is used for C all through. Hence, El^nc-Glynt, not Qynt. And so
IipifT- Grist, not Crist.
The letter used for W is too much like the letter which was called ■' thorn," both
in large and small t]rpe. In Anglo-Saxon writing the two were distinguid»d bv
the stnught stroke being carried above the line in the *' thorn," but not in the " wen."
In the present proof (p. 274, 1. 3, end), ]»aef-thaes; it should be paef ^-wses.
^ p. 274, 1. 4. In the third word, the first letter should be w, not r : m^ne
ryhtwissesta (righteousest) helme.
11. 4, 6. iElc=iBc, i.e, "also," not "always."
1. ^. What is the first syllable in " Selandis ?" It cannot be the definite article
1. 6. Nisi-nil, f./., will not Forgyfan— to eive up (not, " to pardon").
I. 5. Forsecan : some auxilarv verb is wantea.
II. 4, 5. " Witodlice " is not the preposition ** for." It is either an adverb or a con-
junction, and stands in contrast with "so^lic" (which should be "soSlice"). ''His
lufian "—for his love (dative).
1. 7 (see also page 276). " Magorine " should be " magorinc " — kindred, kinsmen ;
" byst " is pluraL " ys " is no doubt an error.
The identification of the proper names does not seem to be always very successful.
King-helmes-ford cannot be (phonetically) Chelmsford ; which, moreover, was
in Essex, not in Merda.
As to the ' wel * in Medeswelhamsted, see Sax. Chron. under the year 654.
Kine-helmes-weorth ; King^lmes-weorth. Can this be Kenilworth? King-
elmes-nam — Kenilsham (?). These are possible corruptions, but rather startling.
Stran^-ford-byrig- Stan-ford (?)
Dheotisbyrg cannot be Tewkesbury, nor is it likely to be either Tutbury or
Tetbury; at least, initial D (dh) does not usually become T, although pro-
nounced "th."
All these names ought to be in the dative case, governed by the preposition
"set ;" but some are so, and some are not.
52 (page 297). It is worth while drawing attention to Mr. J. H. Round's
curious article relating to this subject in the Antiquary^ vol. xi. (18105), pp. 25-30,
63-67. 134. "35-
33 (paee 299). This is a quotation from Gardiner's A Midland Town in the
Reign of George the Third, It is as follows :
" Within the precincts of the castle there is a large open space, called the
Newarke, where crowds of the lower orders resort on Shrove Tuesday for a
holiday. In my father's time the sports were cock -throwing, single stick, wrestling,
etc., and probably the practice we are about to speak of arose from a difficulty m
clearing the square of the people in order to close the gates. On the ringing of
the bell crowds, chiefly young persons, begin to assemble, armed with long sticks,
used only as weapons of^ defence. About three o'clock the Whipping Toms arrive
— three stout fellows, furnished with cart-whips — and a man vrith a bell runs before
them to give notice of their approach. The l)en sounding, the floggers begin to
strike in every direction, to drive the rabble out at the gates ; but they are opposed
and set at defiance by hundreds of men and boys, who defend their legs with
332 Nolrs.
itidu. The mob ao teue and provoke Ibe 9>2ell<ton (hat they \vf about them
onnwfdfdlljr, often cutting tbroogb the itockinet of the inailaDti at a rtroke.
Thb amiuemcnt, if lo it can be called, ii cootinned foi MvcisI boun, the com-
batanti being driren from one end ol the garriMO to the other, (utroundol bjr
crowda of iw women aod apectuoi*. Attempt* h*T« been made to get rid of
thii mde coitom, bat witbodt c&ct, aa lome teniue ia maintained by it "
lubject, thoi^ it
baa p^en information not to be found in ibeM antboritiea. An utidc in tbe
Ttanaactioo* o( the Leicettenhire Archmlogical Society, toL vi. (1SS6), pp. 168-
171, iboold alao be cooiulted.
^ 30s)- The fint of theie articles will be found printed on p. 313. The
■" ----"if Liieratute coo-
34 (nee JM). [Mac Tf^'lor'a Wtnis and Placis and Beddoe'a Kocti ofBriiam
tbould be cooaulted on tlui lubject, thoi^ it will be found that Mr. Thoupioti
baa p^en information not to be found in ibcM antboritiea. An utidc
Ttanaactioo* of the Leicettenhire Archmlogical Society, toL vi. (1SS6), \
171, iboold alao be cooiulted.
35 (iMBe 305). The fint of theie articlet will be found printed on p. 313
iecooa, 1837, pact L, p. 614, ii a Report of the Royal Society of Liteiatu
tainii^ " A Hemoir on the V[trilied Forti of Siwtland," by tbe Rev. J. Jan
ffgrvitguautfipm tin tarliul H.
INDEX.
Add, Saxon wheel ctom ducorertd
•t.263
Addington, frits it, i6i
** Atdttman • GnmDd," place lo oJled,
106
Alexandria, convcDt it, patriardial
chair of St Mark in, 4j
Alfred (King) at the River Lea, 337,
318
Albttan, Bithop of Sheibone, riac of,
247.249
Alphian, lock lo called, 106^ 107
Alipiddle, pit* near, 160
Ainbrodiif (Anrelio*)^ cocmectioo of
with StoaeheDn, 78, 79, 81
America, CeotraC carved monolitlu in,
, Soatb, ioaagiirRtioi) chain of
stone in, 41, 43
Amtwych, icpnlchral remaJu near, 141
Angle*, colcnuntion of Leiccttenhire
by, 389
eTideoce of, on Avebaij,
ments, etc, 245-354; remain*, earljr,
171-194
Animal bone* fonnd at Avebmy, 100-
remain* found near Slonebenge,
ATTOwbeadi (Hone) fonnd near Hali-
fai, 3S
Arthnt, Kin& battleof, commemorated.
at Silburr, 98
Ailronomical n*e of Stonehetue, 77, 80
Athelilnn, crowning of, at KingrioD,
30I, 303 ; battle of Bnumenlnirgh,
17,329
Avebnry, Wiltshire, 5, 6^ 31, 23, 327 )
pmenl Mate of, 87-101] poat-Roman
date of; 96
Axe fonnd in bartow near Carliile, 74}
found at Oakland, 249; Anglo-Saxon,
fonnd at North IjiBenham, 189
Ayleiford, Kit'* Coty Hoiue, near, 65-
69
Bala, tione" altar" near, iii.iti
Bamiwi at Bittaford, Devon, 60 ; near
Carliale, 174, '75 ; Ang^a-Saion, at
Chichester, 189, 190 1 at Gorwell, 63,
63 i at Oddington, 158-160 ; diico>
veied in Orkney, 304 ; near Pirn*
pern, 65
Basinntoke, ikeletoni fonnd near, 177
of Brunnan, 338-233 ; of Here-
tune, 38 1
Beacon-Gres, vitrified fort* can*ed bf,
30S-307. 3"-3>3
Bead* ducovered at Fordington, 104 \
in barrow at Oddington, 159
, adder, diicovcred neaiGolcar, 108
, Anglo-Saxon, found at Kempslon,
■ 73; at North LaOenham, 188 1 at
I^lrixliounie, 183, 1S3
Beard, ihavjng of the, a* maik of di*-
B"«. "34. 136
BeanlT, stone circle at, 50
Beaver, skini of, uied by ancient Bri-
tons, 133
Bedfordthire, tt< " Kempaton"
B^land, Saxon charch at, itio
334
Index.
Belfiut, gold cretcenu found near,
14a
Beltioe, cmmeous etymology oi; 57
Bengal, stone ciidcs in, 51
Bernew, tamolut at, ao
Bevcftejr, church at, 267
Bishopric Angb-Saxon, of Sidnacester,
234-241
Bishops' chain of installation, 4a
Bishopston, snn-dial at, 378
Bittafofd Bridge, group of stones at,
59-6i
Bledlow Hills, cross cut in the chalk of
the, a57
Blestittin, Roman station of, 149
Blestnim, stotion of, ao8
Blight (J. T.) on Holed Stones,
57.58; Stone Circles and Mega-
Uthic Remains, l6-a3
Boase (John J. A.y, on Stone Circles
and Mec^ithic Remains, 13-16
Bolleit, holed stone at, 49 . , ^
Bone implement found m London,
asa*254
. ol^ects found in barrow near
Carlisle, 174 ^ ^ ^
Bones, animal, found at Avebury, 10^
lOI _ -,.
^ human, in barrow at Oddmgton,
158
1, human, burnt, discovered in Ork-
oxen, found in Saxon grave at
Sarr MUl, I79 , . ^
sheep, found m Saxon grave at
Sarr Mill, 179 ^. , ^
Bonney (T. G.). <« Stone Circles and
Mcgalithic Remains, 3-13
Books lost, Ii8
Borough English at Leicester, 297
Boscawen circle of stones, ao
Boskednan stone drde, 19, ao
Bottallack, stone circles at, ai
Bradford-Peverel, barrow at, 6$
"Bran," the legendary dog, scene of
the story, S* „
•« Brandrcth Cragjes," group of stones
so called, loi ^ ^, .
Brash (R. R.). Ancient Stone Chairs
and Chairs of Inauguration, 37-43 ;
on Holed Stones, 43-54.
Brass, inscribed, at Leominster, 373-
276 ; at Wimbome, a79-a86
Brent O^bn), Anglo-Saxon Rehcs,
Kent, 178-180
Brent QoYoi, jun.). Antiquities found
near the Old Tilt Yard, Greenwich,
l8o-i8i ; Another Anglo-Saxon
Cemetery in East Kent, 181-185
*< Bridestone," stone so called, no
Bridgewater, British antiquities found
near, 141
Brimham Rocks, a6, 105
Brinham, Holed Stone at, 53
Brittany, stone circles, etc, in, 8, 9^
13-10
Bronse bowl found at Sarr Mill, 179
fibulae found in Dublin, 14a
obwcU found near Armagh, 141 ;
near Bridgewater, 141
ornament, found at Ebrington,
176; in Anglo-Saxon grave at Kemps-
ton, 171 ; at Patrixboume, i8a, 183,
184 ; at Stowting, 187
spearheads, etc., 138, 139
Brooches, Anglo-Saxon, found at Patrix-
boume, 184
Brunnan, battle of, aa8-a33, 3a9
Buckingham, Saxon work at castle of.
Buddhistic origin of Abnry, 93 ; of
Stonehenge, o, 94
Building, vitrification used for, 305, 314
Bulla found near Armagh, 141 ; at
Sarr Mill, 178
Burfordi^ stone coffin found near, 187,
188
Bumham, site of the battle of Brunnan,
a3i
Burrowbridge, Devil's arrows at 10a,
Buryan, holed stone at, 48 ^
Burying within cities, practice oi^ ayo
Bute, Kyles oi; vitrified fort in the, 305,
308-309, 3"3-3»4
Caerleon, Roman station at, 149, 150
Caesar, passage of, across the Thames,
i38»"Si-i5S . .
Callemish, stone arde at, ao, aa
Cambodunum, Roman station of, ay,
108
Cambridgeshire, Domesday churches in,
a58
set " Newmarket," " Wflbraham "
Canice (St.), chair of, in Kilkenny
Cathedral, 4a, 43
** Cannon Rocks," stones so called, 105
CapeUa, mention of in Domesday, aya
<< Captains, the Two," tumuli so called,
ai7
Caractacus, camp of, ao8
Carinthia, Dukes x>f, inauguration of,
31.32
lueUx.
335
" Carl Lofts," rows of stones so called,
72-75. 321-325
Carlisle, harrow near, 174, 175
Camatic, holed stones in, 51
Cassivelaunus, relic of the troops of,
137
Castle, Buckingham, 258
Castles occupy earlier sites, 226
Cats, wild, in Britain^ 146, 147
Catskin used for dress- hy ancient
Britons, 134
Cave remains near Saddleworth, 106
Caves, Cornish, characteristic of, 22
Celts, settlement of Westmoreland and
Cumberland, 75
, British, clothing of the, 131-137
, Irish, superstition of the holed
stone amongst the, 53
Cemetery, Anglo-Saxon, at Kempeton,
171-173
Chaiis, stone, and stones of inaugura-
tion. 27-43
Chatelains, Anglo-Saxon, found at Pat-
rixboume, 183
Chattaway (Joseph), stones at Bittaford
Bridge, Devon, J9-61
Cheese- wring, groups of stones so called,
at St Clear, 59
Cherchebi, places so named in York-
shire, 262
Chichester, barrows at, 189, 190
Chieftains, ceremony of inauguration o(
Irish, 30, 31, 32
Chirchesset, source of ecclesiastical
revenue, 270
Christians, use of Druid stones by, 9,
24. 27, 51
Church, derivation of the word, 24, 317
Churches, Anglo-Saxon, number of the,
264-273 ; in Domesday Survey, 258-
264
Circles, stone, 4
Cissa, Anglo-Saxon King, 100
Cities, burying within« 270
Qothing of the ancient Britons, 131-
137
Cloughton« stone circle at, 103
Coast, trees under the waters of the, 156,
167
Coins of Mauricius found at Sarr Mill,
178, 179
of Vespasian found near Gorwell,
— -, Roman, found under Stonehenge
stones, 79
, silver, discovered in Orkney, 304
Cold Harbour," place so called, 210
((
"Cole," use of the word for money,
163
Collar, ancient British. 140, 141
Constantine, holed stone at, 49» 549 57
Cooking utensil found near Ouiter-
bury, 144, 145
Cornwall, inauguration chairs in, 40;
holed stones in, 47-49, 57; stone
circles in, 4 ; tin works in, 165 ; see
" Boscawen," " Bottallack," " Bosk-
ednan," "M^nSkryfa," "St. Cleer,"
"St. Just," "Sancreed," "Trevethy,"
"Trewavas," "Zennor"
Coronation chairs, 27-43
stone at Kingston-on-Thames, 197-
206
Conway Stakes, crossing of Caesar at,
151
Craniolpgy of Leicestershire, 301
of Anglo-Saxon graves at Wilbra-
ham, 174
Cremation of bodies in Anglo-Saxon
^ves at Kempston, 172
Cnmsworth, origin of namei 1 10
Croker (T. Crofton), Remains near
Lough Gur, Limerick, 1 17-128
"Cromlech." definition of, 4; derivation
of word, 1 10, 327
at Gorwell, 62-64
in Ireland, 116, 117
at Uaiffiattodi Park, 114
at St. Cleer, 59
holed stones used for, 47
Cross cut in Bledlow Hills, 257
Crowning of Anglo-Saxon kings at
Kingston-on-Thames, 197-206
Croyhmd Abbey, boundary of lands at,
" Culpepper's Dish," pits so called, 160
Cumberland, Celtic settlement of, 75 ;
stone circles in, 4
, see "Carlisle," "Gutterby,"
"Keswick," ••Milium." ••Salkeld,"
" Whitbeck "
Custom on Midsummer Eve at Bur-
ford, 188
of the Whipping Toms at Lei:es«
^ ter, 299, 331
Cwickelmsley, mentioned in inscription,
^74
Dad, the, mentioned on brass to Ethel-
red the Elder, 280
Danes, encampment of, near Ebrington,
176
-— — , monuments attributed to^ Carl
Lofts, 75 ; Stonehenge, 76
336
Indtx.
Danes, settlement in Leicestershire, 390,
Dartford, British station at, 153
Dartmoor, stone circles on, 4
Debtling, British station at, 153
Deer, TOne of, worked, discovered in
London, 254
Denmark, coronation stone in, 37, fi
Derbyshire, Scandinavian place-names
in, 292
,«r"Win8ter"
' Destruction of ancient monuments, 17,
18. 73t 75. 87» 891 90, 92. 94i 102,
106, 115, 326-327
'* Devil's Arrows," three stones so
called, 102, 103, 329
Devil's Dvke, Newmarket, 217-222, 329
" Devil's Pulpit,'* rock so called, 208
Devonshire, tinworks in, 165
, see "Bittaford," •* Harford,"
« Stowford "
Dewsbury, church of, 265; ancient
tomb at, 276-278
Dialect word for mone^, 163
Dialects of Leicestershire, 302
Dodds (George), Anglo-Saxon see of
Sidnacester, 234-241
" Dolmen," definition of, 4
Domesday, account of Avebury in, 88,
«9»99
, evidence of, as to Norman Con-
quest, 293
, churches in, 21(8-264
Doniert, King of Cornwall, inscribed
stone to, 58
Donovan (£.) Clothing of the ancient
Britons, 131- 137
Dorsetshire, x^ **Alspiddle," "Bradford
Peveril," " Fordington," "Gorwell,"
"Pimpem," "Portland,*' "Poxwell,"
" Shipton," " Tarent Gunvil,"
" Wareham, * "Wichampton," " Wim-
borne," " Winterbom Abbey *'
Dragon, figure of, carried about Bur-
ford, 188
Druid worship, survival of, in Scotland,
Druids, Stonehenge attributed to, 76,
77.86
Dublin, Celtic remains in, 142, 143
Duel, or holm-gang, custom of the, at
Leicester, 29^ 207
Dundalk, cromlech near, 1 16; stone
circle near, 117
Dungarth, sft '* Doniert"
Durham, cathedral of, stone chair in,
42
Dunkin (A. F.), British Antiquities in
Kent, 151-155
Dunmaniac, principality of, 133
Durham, early German settlement of,
75
Ebringtoo, Anglo-Saxon graves at, 176,
177
Edgar, crowning of, at Bath, 204
Edmund the Elder, crowning of, at
Kingston, 202
Edmund Ironside, crowning of, at
London, 205
Edred, crowning of, at Kingston, 202,
203
Edward, King and Martyr, crowning
of, at Kingston, 205
Edward the Elder, crowning of, at
Kingston, 201
Edwy, crowning of, at Kingston, 203,
204
" Egmond's How," tumulus so called,
310
Eilean Rona, holed stone on island of,
51
Elesford, British station at, 152, 153
Elsness, vitrified remains at, 109-311
Enstone, upright stone near, 67, 68
Essex (Lord, temp, Eliz.), seal of, 142
Ethelred, crowning of, at Kingston, 20$
Ethelred the Elder, brass of, at Wiu-
borne, 279-286
'* Fachia," meaning of the word, 272
Fairies, pipes of Cromwell's soldiers
attribute J to, 55
Faversham, Anglo • Saxon Cemetery
near, 186, 187
Felts made by ancient Britons, 133
" Fena," myth arising from this name,
56,57
Fetichism, primitive origin of, 55
Fires, practice of lighting, 5c
Fleam Dyke, pandlel to the Devil's
Dyke, 218
Folklore of Ireland, relics of Phallic
worship in, 54, 55
Footprints, impress of, on stones, 33
Fordington, human skeletons at, 164
Forests, submarine, 156, 167
of Scotland, 307, ifA
Fosbroke (T. D.), Offa's Dyke, ao6-
218
Framland, hundred of, 290
" Frethevy-stone," cromlech so called
at St. Cleer, 59
Fumess, stone circles at, 4
Index.
537
ft
Gemsege (Paul), Anglo-Saxon fragment,
245
" Giant's Load," stone so called, 1 16
Gloucestershire, see "Ebrington," "Od-
dington," - Offa's Dyke*^
Golcar, place-name o/, 25 ; rocking-
stone at, 107
Gold ornaments found near Armagh,
141 ; near Belfast, 142 ; Anglo-Saxon,
found at Faversham, 1S6
ring found in Thames, 246
Gorham (G. C)t Anglo-Saxon jewel
representing St. Neot, 249-252
Gorsedd, description of the, 39
Gorwell, stone circle at, 61-^4
Graves, Anglo-Saxon, found at Horton
Kirfay, 185, 186; at Patrixboume,
i8i-i85;Mtf '*Bariow/' "Cemetery,
"Tumuli"
Greece, ancient stone chairs in, 41
Greenwich, Anglo-Saxon relics found
at, 180^ 181
" Grey Mare and her Colts," stones so
called at Gorwell, 62
Grimsditch, in Herefordshire, 214
Guernsey, group of stones in, 128
<<Guggleby Stone," stone so called, at
Shap, 73, 323
Guild phvil^;es, transmitted by succes-
sion, 297
Gur (Lough), Limerick, remains near,
117-128
Guthlake's (St.) Cross, 286
Gutterby, stone circle at, 23
Gwydir, battle fought at, 249
Hackluyt, Saxon inscription in hand-
writing o( 273-276
Hackpen Hills, instances of names, 99
Hadow (W. E.K discoveries at Ebring-
ton, Gloucestershire^ 176
Hair, clothing of ancient Britons, 131
Halifax, church of, 271, 272
— , stone cirde at, 25
Hall (George), Carl-LolU at Shap,
Westmorland, 72-74
Hampshire, j»^ ''Basingstoke," ''Wight
(IsleoO"
Handle Hall, ancient British collar
found at, 140, 141
Hanshall (T. H.), ring of Alhstan,
Bishop o? Sherbome,Tound at Uys-
fiten, Carnarvonshire, 247-249
Harford Church, 60
Hamham Hill, Saxon burial-place at,
190-192
VOL. VL
Hasell (Samuel), Antiquities found near
Bridgewater, 141
Hebrews, use of stones by, 105, 108
Helmet, remains of, found in barrow
near Carlisle, 174
Heraldry, use of, in identifying families,
295
Hereford, Anglo-Saxon pavement at,
258
Herefordslure, British trackway in,
148-151
see "Grimsditch," "Leominster,"
" Mardox," " Moorhampton "
Hertshead, chapel at, 263
Hesleden (W. &), Battle of Brunnan,
228-233
Holmgang, custom of the, 296, 297
" Holystone," stone so called, 107, 109
Hoo, Hundred of, the state of the
Trinobantes, 155
Hook, Druid's, 145, 146
Horse-burial, 329 ; at Orkney, 303 ; at
Wilbraham, 174
Horseshoe, emblem of, in Hindu temple,
94
Horse-trappings found in barrow near
Carlisle, 174; at Faversham, 186
Horton Kirby, Anelo-Saxon (Cemetery
found at, 185, 186
Houses, wooden, of Dublin, 142
Huddersfield, stone monuments near,
103, 104
" Hulley's Slack," Yorkshire vale so
called, 103
Human bones in barrow at Oddington,
158; burnt, discovered in Orkney,
304
^— skeletons found at Basingstoke,
177; at Ebrington, 176; at Ford-
ington, 164 ; at Greenwich, 181 ;
at Hamham Hill, 190, 191 ; at
Horton Kirby, 185, 186 ; at Kemp-
ston, 171 ; in Orkney, 303 ; at Win-
der, 175
Humber, marks of the route of con-
quest, 291
Hundred of Framland, 290; of Hoo, 155
Hunt (T. H.) on stone coffin found at
Burford, 187, 188
Hunter (Joseph) Present State of Abury,
Wilts, 87.93
" Hurlers," stone circle so called, Corn-
wall, 4, 21
" Hurlpepper's Dish," pits so called,
160
Ictis, site of the ancient, 155-158, 166
22
338
Index.
Inauguration, chairs of, 27>43i 317*318
India (Hindustan), stones and stone
circles in, 5i*53« 94
Inscription found at Stonehenge, 82
, Saxon, in Leominster church,
273-276
Ireland, Phallic worship in, 54, 55
^ ancient stone chairs in, 28-37,
38.39
, stones and stone circles in, 1 16-128
, holed stones in, 43-47, 48
Jews, custom of loosing the shoe among,
34>35
Jones (Inigo), theory on Stonehenge by,
76
Jupiter Optimus Maximus, statue of, 27
Kempston, evidence of Saxon settle-
ments at, 171-173
Kent, British antiquities in, 15 1-15$
Kent, set "Aylesford," " Dartford,"
"Debtling." "Elesford," "Faver-
sham," " Greenwich," " Horton
Kirby," "Patrixbourne," "Sarr Mill,"
" Stowting," " Wye "
Kertch, supposed Anglo-Saxon remains
from, 193, 194
Keswick, stone circle at, 23
Kilkenny, cathedral of, chair of St.
Canice in, 42, 43
Kimmeridge coal, 162
Kingston-on-Thames, coronation stone
at, 197-206
Kirkmann (A. C) Ancient British Collar
found in Lancashire, 140, 141 ; An-
cient British Shield, 137, 138
Kirton in Lindsey, Aiiglo-Saxon see of
Sidnacester at, 237
" Kistvaen," definition of, 4
Kit's Coty House, 65-69, 319
Knaresborough, rock idol near, 105
Knives, An^o-Saxon, found at Hor-
ton Kirby, 185 ; at Kempston, 172,
174; at Patrixbourne, 182, 183
** Ladstone," stone so called, 1 10
Lancashire, see " Handle Hall "
Lea river, King Alfred's work on the,
227, 228
Leicester, race distinctions in town of,
295. 296
, Saxon arch at, 257
Leicestershire, Domesday churches in,
268
, immigration of Scandinavians
into, 289-302
Leominster, Saxon inscription in church
of, 273-276. 331
Libations, pouring of, through iK>]ed
stones, 50
Lichfield, antiquities near, 1 47
Limerick, remains near Lough Gnr,
117-128
Lincolnshiie, battle of Brunnanburgfa
in, 229
, Scandinavian places named in,
292
, see " Kirton in Lindsey "
Lindsey, bishops of, Anglo-Saxon, 234
Ll.indwake, inscrilied stone at, 113
Llangattock Park, stone cist discovered
at, 114
Llywarch Hen, relic of, 249
Lwan stones, definition of, 4
Ijokmariaker, stones at, 8, 9, 1 3- 1 5
London, crowning of Edmund Ironside
at, 205
, St. Katherine's Docks, bone im-
plement found at, 252-254
^1 Tower of, gold ring fbund in
Thames at, 246
" Lone Meg and her Daughters,'* stone
drde so called, 10^ 11, 20, 71, 7a,
319-321 .
Lower (Mark Antony), snn-dial at
Bishqpston Chorch, 278
'* Low Field," placed so called, 191
Luffenham (North), Anglo-Saxon ceme-
tery at, 188, 189
Lyons, cathedral of, stone chair In, 42
Madron, holed stone at, 48, 49
Man, Isle of, see ** Mule Hill," << Oat-
land"
Mardox, ancient British torques found
*t, 139
Mark (St), patriaicfaa! chair of, at
Alexandria, 43
Marmodius, campaign of, against Offi^
212, 213
Marriage ceremony with the shoe, 35
Marten, Anglo-Saxon battle-place, »2,
283
Martm, Wilts, pits at, l6l, 162
'* Matlow HilV' tumulus so called, 218
Mats, ancient British, 133
Mecalithic remains, 3-27
*' M(8n-an-tol," stone monoment so
called, 49, 57, 318
M£n Skryfa stone, 114, 115
" Menhir," definition of, 3
Mercia, property of the Kings of, 275
Meretunc, battle of, 281, 282
Index.
339
Merlin, tradition of, connected with
Stonehenge, 8i, 82
Midsummer Eve custom at Burford, 188
Migvie, sculptured stone at, 115, 116
Milium, stone circle at, 23
Money, cant word for, 163
Moor (J. K.) stone circle at Gorwell,
Dorset, 61-64
Moorhampton, British settlement at, 148
''Mor," the syllable, in place-names, 13
Moreford, a passage-way across the
Thames, 138
Moriconium, site of, 226
Morley, church at, 26
Mow Cop, stone at, 106
Mule HUl, Isle of Man, circle of kist-
vaensat, 18
Mysticism of Hindoo belief, 54, 5S
Myths arising from ignorance of word-
meanings, 57
^ Ned and Grace's Bed," stone so called,
124
Neot (St), Anglo-Saxon jewel repre-
senting, 249-252
Newmarket, Devil's Dyke at, 217-222
Newton Paik, Anglo-Saxon jewel
found at, 249
Newton stone, Aberdeen, carving on, 93
*'Nine Maidens," stone circles so
called, 21
Norfolk, ue « Norwidi," •* Thetford "
Norman Conquest, evidence of Domes-
day on, 293
Northamptonshif e, see ** Peterborough "
Northumberland, early German settle-
ment of, 75
Norwich, number of capella in, 272
Nottinghamshire, Scandinavian place-
names in, 292
O'Conors, coronation chair of the, 33
O'Donnells, coronation chair of the,
29. 30
O'Neills, coronation chair of the, 28,
29.37
Oatland circle of stones. Isle of Man,
18
Oddington, barrow at, 158-160
Odin, stone of, 50, 51
OflTa's Dyke, Gloucestershire, 206-217,
219, 220, 329
"Old Man at Mow," stone so called,
106
Orkney, Norse remains in, 303-314
, stone circles in, 4, 50
Ornamentation on stones, 8, 9, 13-15,
95, 116; of stone circles, 51
Ornaments found in barrow at Odding-
ton, 159
, Anglo-Saxon, 245-254; at Ebring-
ton, 176 ; at Greenwich, 180^ 181 ;
in Isle of Wighr, 177, 178 ; at Sarr
Mill, 178; near Scarborough, 192,
193; at North Luffenham, i&
, bronze^ found at Horton Kirby,
185, 186 ; in Anglo-Saxon graves at
Kempston, 172, 173; at Patnxboume,
182, 183, 184 ; at Stowting, 187
gold, Anglo - Saxon, found at
Faversham, 186
^ silver, discovered in Orkney, 304
see "Bulla," "Collar," "Torques"
Oswald (St.)f place of his death, 241,
242
Oswestry, the place of St. Oswald's
death, 242
Overton, charters referring to^ 98
Ownership of public monuments, 89
Oxen, bones o( found in Saxon grave
at Sarr Mill, 179
Oxfordshire, stone circles in, 4
see " Burford," " Enstone "
Pail, bronze ornamented, found at Great
'Wilbraham, 174
" Pancake," stone so called, 106
Patnxboume, Anglo-Saxon graves at,
181-185
Pavement, Anglo-Saxon, at Hereford,
258
Pelasgian masonry, 56
Penmaenmawr, stone circle at, 20
Pershore, Anglo-Saxon ornament found
at, 246, 247
Peru, masonry in, 56
, ancient stone monuments of, 42
Peterborough, ancient names of, 276
Phallic worship in India, 53, 54; in
Ireland, 54
Phidias, staiue of Jupiter by, 27
Phoenicians, intercourse of, with Britain,
155158, 164167
, Stonehenge attributed to the, 76
Pilgrims' stones, 113
Pirn pern, barrows near, 65
Pipes of Cromwell's soldiers attributed
to fairies, 55
Pits near Addington, 161 ; AIspiHdle,
160; Carmarthen, 161 ; in Wiltshire,
161, 162
Place - names of Leicestershire, 289,
291
22 — 2
340
Index.
Portland, I«le of* Kimmeridee ooal
found in, 163
•* Pou and Pans," hiU to called, 106
Potlery, British, foond at Avebuiy, loo^
lOI
» Anglo-SaxoD, found at Winster,
175
Poxwdl, stone drde at, 65
Pretty (G.)t dtsooreries at Ebrington,
177
Private owneisfaip of public monuments,
89
Race distinctions in Letoestershire, 293,
394. 399
Ring of Alhstan, Bishop of Sherborne,
found, 247-249
f gold, found in Thames, 246
** Rin^stone Edge,*' moor so called, 25 ;
cirae of stones at, 108
Rishworth, group of stones at, 109
Roadway, British, in Herefordshire, 148-
151 ; Kent, IS'-'SS
1 Roman, to Silbury, 96>98
^ Robin Hood's Bed," stone circle so
called, 106
Rock basin at Brandrith Craggs, loi ;
near Huddersfield, 104; at Saddle-
worth, 106
Rock-idol near Knaresborough, 105
*' Rocking-stones,'* definition o<^ 4
at Brandrith Craggs, loi ; near
Cambodnnum, 103 ; near Golcar, 107 ;
near Huddersfield, 26
Rollrick, circle of stones, Oxfordshire,
4,20
Roman, Stondieoge supposed to be, 76^
79
buildings discovered near Golcar,
108
^— camps near Gorwell, 61, 63 ; near
Ofiiai's Dyke, 208, 217 ; near Ring-
stone, 26
coins found under Stonehenge
stones, 79 ; of Vespasian, found near
Gorwell, 64
road lo Silbury, 96-98
station of Camboduaum, 27 ; in
Herefordshire, 148
tiles found in Devil's Dyke, 221
walb, 219
Romans, date of stone circles with re-
ference to the, 10^ 16
Rothley, cross in churchyard of, 300
Rowe (T. ), on Anglo-Saxon ornainent,
247; ancient cooking ulensils, 144,
145; curious particulais ooncemiiig
wild cats in Britain, 146, 147
Rudge (Edw.y, on Kit's Coty Hoose^
67-69
Rudstone, stone pillar at, 105
<• Rue-hill Wood," mound so called,
'53.154 . ^.
Runic characters on stone m Kirton m
Lindsey, 240
Rutland, Scandinavian place-names in,
292
, «r ** Luffenham **
Saddleworth, hill at, 106
St. Briavel's, Ofia's Dvke near, 206-217
St. Cleer, stones at, 55, 59
St. Just, Cornwall, stone circle at, 17 ;
holed stone at, 49
St. Michael's Mount, 156, 166
Salisbury, origin of the name, 12
, Sucon Uirial-place near, 190-192
Salkeld, *< Long Meg and her Daugh-
ters "at, 71,72
Sancreed, kistvaen at, 17
Sanctuary, church, 268
Sarr Mill, Anglo-Saxon relics at, 178- 180
*' Saxzen Stones," Abury so called, 93
Scandinavian antiquities, 289-314
Scarborough, Anglo.- Saxon remains
near, 192, 193
Scotland, inai^ration of King of the
Isles, 39 ; holed stones in, 49-51 ;
see ••CaUemUh," "Migvie."
Seal, signet, of Lord Esex found near
Dubhn, 142
Sepulchral interment near Amlwych,
141
origin of stone circles, li, 12 ; of
Stonehenge, 7S
remains found at Moneydie, 103
Serpent tradition, 25
Serpent-worship, stone circles emblems
ofi93
Severn, ancient vessel found m, 143,
144
Shap, groups of stones at, 72-75
Sheep indigenous to Britain, 132
, bones of, found in Saxon grave
at Sarr Mill, 179
Sheep's-skin, clothing formed of, 132
Sherborne (Alhstan, Bishop oQi ring of,
found, 247-249
Sherburne, Saxon church at, 259
Shetland, Law-ting in, 37, 38
Shield, ancient British, 137, 138
, traces of, Anglo-Saxon, found at
Patrixboume, 182
Index.
341
Shield, Anglo-Saxon, found at Wye,
249
, round, found in banowat Od-
dineton, 159
Shielou, umbos of, found at Ebrington,
177 ; in Anglo-Saxon graves at
Kempston, 172-174
'* Shipley Hill," tumulus so called, 299
Shipton, barrow at, 65
Shoe or slipper, custom of, connected
with inauguration ceremonies, 32, 33,
34* 35
Shropshire, see ** Oswestry "
Sid^ worship of, by Britons, 239
Sidnacester, Anglo-Saxon see of,234-24i
Silbttr;|r Hiii, 93; attributed to the
Druids, 77 ; post-Roman date of, 96
Silver ornaments found at Ebrington,
176 ; in Orkney, 304
Skeletons, human, found at Basing-
stoke, 177; at Ebrinffton, 176; at
Greenwich, 181 ; at Hambam Hill,
190, 191; at Horton Kirbv, 185,
186 ; at Kempston, 171 ; in Orkney,
303; at Winster, 175
*• Skellaw,'* 6eld so called near Shap,
73
" Sleepy Low," cairn so called, 109
Smart (T. W. W.), Brass of Ethelred
the Elder at Wimbome Minster,
279-286
Smith (C. Roach) Anglo-Saxon ceme-
tery found at Horton Kirl^, 185, 186;
on the supposed Anglo-Saxon re-
mains from Kertch, 193, 194
Smith (J.), notice of an undescribed
Vitrified Fort in the Burnt Isles, in
the Kyles of Bute, 313, 314
Soar, place-names on the banks of the,
291
Sokeman, of Domesday, 293
" Soldier's Ring," camp so called, 284
Somersetshire, jee ** Bridgewater,"
" Newton," " Stanton Drew "
Sowerby, stone pillar at, 109
Spear, found in barrow near Carlisle,
174; at Oddington, 159
Spear-blade found in Anglo-Saxon
grave at Kempston, 172, 174
Spear-heads, bronze, 138, 139; found
at Ebrington, 176 ; at Palrixboume,
182, 183 ; at Winster, 175
Staffordshire, see " Lichfield "
Stanton Drew, stone circle at, 69-71
Stennis, stone circle at, 50
Stevens (Edward T.)> Stonehenge and
Abury. 93-96
Stone celt found near Saddleworth, 106
Stone circles, use of, for burial (Chris-
tian), 23, 24
Stonehenge, 5-7, lo^ 11-13, 22, 75-87,
326^3*7
, Buddhistic origin of, 94
, post-Roman date of, 96
Stones and stone circles, 3-128
^ impress of feet on, 33
, holed, 43-C8
, worship of, 9, 14, 22, 24, 43-58
Storrington, urn found at, 142, 143
Stowfonl, stone pillar at, no
Stowting, Anglo-Saxon cemetery at, 187
Succession, female, amongst ancient
Irish, 135 ; see •* Guild "
Sun, Stonehenge supposed to be a
temple of, 80
Sunbnck circle of stones, Lancashire^ 4
Sun-dial at Bishopston Church, 278
Superstition as to stones, Ireland, 124
Surnames, use of, amongst ancient Irish,
13s
, Leicestershire, 300-309
Surrey, ue " Addington," ** Kingston "
Sussex, see "Bishopston," " Chichester,"
« Storrington "
Sweden, coronation stone in, 37
Sword found in barrow near Carlisle,
174
, Anglo-Saxon, found at Favers-
ham, iSs ; at Patrixboume, 182, 183;
at Wilbraham, 174 ; at Wye, 249
Tara, hill of, hill of inauguration, 35
Tarent-Gunvil, barrow at, 65
Tenure, land, 3^2
Teutates, worship of, 275, 276
Teutonic, pre -Roman settlement in
England, 75
Thames, passage of Caesar across, 138,
151-155
, Hampton and Walton, shield
found in, 137
, Tower, gold ring found in, 246
Thetford, mound at, 329, 330
Thompson (Tames), immigration of the
Scandinavians into Leicestershire,
289-302
Thurman (John), Avebury and Silbury
Hill, 96-101
Tin works, early British, 164-167, 328,
329
Todmorden, stones at, 104, 105, no
Tolmore, Buteshire, stone circle at, 51
Tomb, ancient, at Dewsbury, 276-278
Torques, ancient British, 139, 140, 141
342
Iftdex.
Traditions connected with itooe dicles,
TnTclltnfr, shoe thrown after the tra*
▼eller, 35
Trent, roate of conquest marked bfi 291
Trevethy, cromlech at, 58
Trewavas Head, barrow on, 18
Triangular arrangement of stones, 54
Trunnion's (St.) tree^ thorn-tree so
called, 333
Tumuli, Anglo-Saxon, at Great Wilbra-
ham, 173, 174 ; at Ratcliffe, 399
Turks, superstition of ''passing through"
amongst the, 53
Urns, cineraiy, Anglo-Saxon, found at
North LuRenham, 188; at Kempt-
ton, 173 ; Storrington, 143, 143
Usk, encampments near, 149, 150
Vespasian, coins of, found near Gor-
well, 64
Vienna, cathedral of, stone chair in, 43
Vitrified forts in Orkney, 305-314
Volcanic agency, Yitrihed forts caused
by. 305
Wakefield, Saxon church at, 363
Wales, inauguration chairs and customs
in, 39, 40
, St. Pagan's, bronze weapons found
.see "Abcr," "Bcrriew," "Pen-
maenmawr "
Walker (J. K.), stone circles and mega-
lithic remaias, 33, 37 ; remains in
Yorkshire, 103-I11 ; Anglo-Saxon
churches in Domesday, 358-373
Wansdyke, in Wilts, 319
Ward hills, in Orkney, 313
Wareham, the age of its walls, 333-
229, 330
Warle^, stone pillar at, 109
Warwickshire, Scandinavian place-
names in, 392
Watt's Dyke, 31 1, 310, 320
Weapons, bronze, 130, 139
Wesley (John), visit of, to remains at
Lough Our, 119
Westminster Abbey, coronation-stone
in, 35-37
Westmoreland, Celtic settlement of, 75 ;
sfe " Shap '*
Westropp (Hodder M.)|On holed-stones,
55-57
Whipping Toms, custom o( at
ter, 299, 331
Whitbecky stone circles at, 23
Whiteleaf Cross, near Princes Ris-
borough, 257 ; see " Bledlow Hills "
Wilbraham, Great, Saxon burial-gronnd
»t. 173. 174
Wichampton, place of Ethelred the
Elder's death, 285
Wight, Isle of, the ancient Ictis, 167
, Saxon cemeteries in, 177, 178
Wilts, see ••Abury." "Harnham HUl,"
"Marten," "Martin," "Overton,"
"Salisbury," "Sabury," "Sione-
henge," " Wansdyke "
Wimbome Minster, brass of King
Ethelred the Elder at, 279-286
" Winklow's Banow," banow socaUed,
177
Wmster, Saxon graves at, 175
Winterbom Abtwy, stone circle at, 64
"Wolf.fold," ring of stones so caUed«
108
Wood, churches built of, 260^ 273, 330
Woollen clothes, ancient British, 133
Worcestershire, set " Pershore "
Word-myths, instances of, 57
Wreke, place-names on the bonks of
theb29i
Wright (Cyeorge R.), undent bone
implement, 2C2, 254
** Wnng-cheese,"^* group of stones so
called, at St Cleer, 59
Wyatt (James), Anglo-Saxon antiquities
at Kempston, 171-173
Wye, Anglo-Saxon grave at, 249
. Of&'s Dyke, near the, 307, 214,
216
Yates (George), ancient vessel found in
the Severn, 143, 144
Yorkshire, Dom«iday churches in, 259
,see "Adel," "Batley," "Bage-
land," "Brandreth," "Burrowbridge,"
"Claughlon," •• Cherchebi," "Dews-
bury." •*Golcar," "Halifax," "Heru-
head," « Huddersficld." " Knares-
borough," "Morley," "Mow Cop,"
" Rishworth," "Rudstone," "Saddle-
worth." " Scarborough," " Sowerby,*
" Sherburne," " Wakefield," " War-
ley'*
Zennor circle of stones, 17
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